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ECLECTIC SCHOOL READINGS 



THE 



STORY OF MODERN FRANCE 



BY 



H. A. GUERBER 




NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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GUERBER'S HISTORICAL 


READERS 

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IN THE ECLECTIC READINGS 


Story of the Thirteen Colonies . 


Story of the Great Republic 


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Story of Old France 


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Story of Modern France 


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Copyright, 1910, by 
H. A. GUERBER. 

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 

M. F. 

W. P. I 




t CI.A278823 



PREFACE 

The aim of this volume is to give a complete graphic 
account of the main features of the history of France 
since 1715 a.d., with as much additional illuminating detail 
as limited space permits. Besides outlines of the principal 
events, this narrative includes many biographical sketches, 
together with the anecdotes and sayings to which allusions 
are often made in literature, politics, and art. It also 
gives such data in regard to places, public buildings, and 
works of art as the well informed like to have at their 
fingers' ends. As the work is intended mainly for youth- 
ful readers, due regard has been paid to moral teachings 
and to the judicious omission of harmful incidents. 

The book is arranged for elementary history classes, 
and for supplementary reading as well. Some acquaint- 
ance with the history of France is most helpful in under- 
standing and studying literature, and English, American, 
Medieval, and General history. Besides, in schools where 
French is taught, it can serve as a work of reference for 
the pupils, who continually stumble across names and 
allusions which require elucidation. The author, there- 
fore, hopes many schools will find this narrative useful in 
one or the other connection, and that it will appeal equally 
to teachers and pupils and perhaps to other readers also. 

Although complete in itself, and hence quite independent, 
it is nevertheless a sequel to " The Story of Old France," 
for it takes up the thread of the narrative at the point 

3 



4 PREFACE 

where it was dropped in that book, and carries it on un- 
broken to the present date. 

Many names occur and recur in the text because 
faraiharity with their appearance is desirable from an edu- 
cational point of view. Where the pronunciation seems 
difficult, it has been carefully indicated the first time the 
name appears, and the indication is repeated in the index. 
Before the day's reading, a few minutes may profitably 
be given to the pronunciation of such names by the 
teacher, with their repetition by the pupils. This process 
will facilitate the reading and hence increase the interest. 
Names in parenthesis need not be read aloud, sight ac- 
quaintance with them being all that is expected of young 
readers, so the pronunciation of those names is given in 
the index only. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

I. The Old Monarchy 

II. The Minority of Louis XV. 

III. War of the Austrian Succession 

IV. The Misgovernment of Louis XV 
V. Marriage of Marie Antoinette . 

VI. Beginning of Louis XVI.'s Reign 

VII. Turgot's Ministry 

VIII. The American Revolution 

IX. The Queen's Necklace 

X. The Fall of the Bastille 

XI. The Mob at Versailles 

XII. Death of Mirabeau 

XIII. The Flight to Varennes 

XIV. Mobs raid the Tuileries 
XV. The King's Trial 

XVI. The King's Execution . 

XVII. Story of Charlotte Corday 

XVIII. The Queen parted from her Children 

XIX. Death of Marie Antoinette 

XX. Many Executions . 

XXI. Death of Madam Elizabeth 

XXII. Death of Robespierre . 
XXIIL^ End of the Revolution 

XXIV. The Orphans of the Temple 

XXV. The Youth of Napoleon 

XXVI. Bonaparte in Italy 



PAGE 
II 

i6 

23 

28 

33 

37 
40 

43 
46 

53 
61 
66 
71 

77 
86 

88 
92 

97 

ICI 

107 
I II 

119 
123 
127 
132 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

XXVII. End of the Italian War 

XXVI II. Expedition to Egypt 

XXIX. Bonaparte's Coup d'Etat 

XXX. The Consulate 

XXXI. Second Italian Campaign 

XXXII. Murder of the Duke of Enghien 

XXXIII. The First Empire . 

XXXIV. The Battle of Austrrlitz 
XXXV. Entry into Berlin . 

XXXVI. Death of Queen Louise 

XXXVII. Jerome's Marriages 

XXXVIII. Josephine divorced 

XXXIX. Napoleon's Second Marriage 

XL. The Russian Campaign . 

XLI. The Retreat ! 

XLIL The Campaign of 1813 . 

XLIII. The Campaign of 1814 . 

XLIV. Farewells at P'ontainebleau 

XLV. The Return from Elba. 

XLVI. The Hundred Days 

XLVII. Waterloo. 

XLVIII. Napoleon deported 

XLIX. Ney shot .... 

L. Death of Louis XVIII. . 

LI. Charles X. . . . 
LII.^^ Revolution of 1830 

LIII. The Orleanists 

LIV. Interesting Events 

LV. Second Funeral of Napoleon 

LVI. The Algerian Campaign. 
LVII.<^The Revolution of 1848 

LVIII. The Second Empire 

LIX. The Italian War . 

LX. The Mexican War . 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 

CHAPTER PAGE 

LXI. The Franco-Prussian War 294 

LXII. The End of the Second Empire . . , ' . . 302 

LXIII. The Siege of Paris 305 

LXIV. The Commune . . . . 309 

.,-- LXV. Four Presidents . . . . . . . .316 

LXVL The Panama Scandal . . . . • . . . 323 

LXVII. The Dreyfus x\ffair 325 

LXVIII. France in Our Day 329 

Genealogy of the House of Bourbon 337 

Genealogy of the House of Orleans 338 

Genealogy of the Bonapartes . 339 

Index 341 




(8) 



THE 
STORY OF MODERN FRANCE 

I. THE OLD MONARCHY 

THE most thrilling and important events in the history 
of France are those which have occurred within the last 
two hundred years, about which you will read in this book. 
But to know the condition of France, and how it was gov- 
erned two centuries ago, it is well to begin with a brief 
review of previous events. 

Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Alps, and from 
the, Pyrenees almost to the Rhine, France has long held a 
leading place in the history of Europe. The French are 
descended in part from the Gauls, — a half-civilized people 
who gave their name to the country two thousand years ago, 

— and from various other nations who, at different times; 
made their way into the land. 

Greatest among these invaders were the Romans, who 
conquered Gaul before the Christian era, gave it their Latin 
language and civilization, and made it one of the important 
divisions of the great Roman Empire. The barbarian in- 
vaders — Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks, and others 

— in the fifth century destroyed much of the work done 
by the Romans, and broke the country up into petty states. 
Then the whole land was gradually conquered by the 
Franks, a Germanic tribe from which France derives its 




(12) 



THE OLD MONARCHY 13 

present name, and some of its aristocratic families. But 
the French language contains mainly Latin and Gallic ele- 
ments, and has few from other sources. 

The conversion and baptism of the first great Prankish 
ruler, Clo'vis (496), earned for him and for his successors the 
proud title of " Eldest Son of the Church," and made France 
the Catholic country it has been ever since. The greatest 
of all Frankish monarchs, Charlemagne (shar'le-man), 
ruled wisely and well over a vast empire, which included 
France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, most of 
Germany and Italy, and part of Austria (800-8 14). Under 
his descendants this empire was repeatedly divided and 
reunited, but before long France became independent, while 
the other lands remained in the Empire, under German 
Emperors, for many centuries. 

During this period the country suffered greatly from 
frequent struggles between rival kings and from constant 
disputes between monarch and nobles, each of whom wished 
to rule his share of land independently. Finally one of 
these nobles, more powerful than the rest — Hugh Capet 
(ca'pet, or, ca-pe') — became King of France (987) and 
established his capital at Paris, which has ever since been 
the center of the French government. 

Hugh Capet was the founder of the Cape'tian dynasty, 
which includes all of the later kings of France, and which two 
hundred years ago was at the height of its power. This 
dynasty respected the " Salic Law," by which the Franks 
decreed that the French throne should pass to males only; 
that is why no queen has ever reigned over France. 

The throne of the Capetian kings was claimed at times 
by monarchs of other countries, but never successfully. 



14 MODERN FRANCE 

For about one hundred years (i337-i453) France was 
devastated by kings of England who tried to gain the 
French crown in addition to their own. During that time 
the EngUsh held large parts of the country, but they 
were at last driven from French soil by the efforts of Joan 
of Arc, whose heroic example rekindled dying patriotism 
in France. 

The throne was again in danger during the Religious 
Wars ( 1 562-1 598), for, although less than one tenth of the 
population was Protestant, among that tenth was the king, 
Henry IV., the first of the Bourbon (boor'bun) branch of 
the Capetian family. The majority of the French refused 
him obedience until he changed his faith and became a 
Catholic. 

At first the power of the Capetian rulers was not great, 
because the people of France, by the old feudal system, 
owed allegiance to their lords. These lords, it is true, were 
vassals in turn to the king, but if a noble chose to rebel he 
could generally count on the support of the people in his 
own domain. In the Empire, many nobles thus succeeded 
in becoming petty monarchs, but in France the king gradu- 
ally grew strong enough to enforce obedience from his 
vassals, and to keep the land one united country. 

The first real French king, Hugh Capet, was himself a 
powerful noble, and his successors gradually increased 
the royal domain through conquest, marriage, inheritance, 
and purchase, until they became direct masters of the whole 
realm. Still, parts of these royal domains were sometimes 
granted to favorites or relatives, and thus the ranks of the 
nobles were recruited from princes of the royal blood. 
Under weak monarchs the great lords were at times nearly 



THE OLD MONARCHY 



15 



independent, but strong kings were able to exact submis- 
sion, and in the end Louis XIV., third ruler of the 
Bourbon line, made himself an absolute monarch. 

In the Middle Ages, besides king, nobles, and peasants 
— tillers of the soil — there grew up a merchant and manu- 
facturing class, which collected in cities. Many of these 
centers soon purchased certain rights of self-government 
from nobles and kings, but these rights did not extend 
beyond the city limits. French burghers {bourgeois^ never 
exercised any such influence in national affairs as was gained 
by the same class in England. 

Unlike the Enghsh Parliament, French bodies bearing 
that name were simple courts of justice, composed of the 
lawyers and judges of certain towns, each of which had a 
separate parliament. The duty of each parhament was to 
''register" the decrees of the king, and see them properly 
enforced in a certain section of the country. Occasionally 
the parliaments — especially that of Paris — protested 
against unpopular decrees and exerted some little influence 
in lawmaking by delaying or refusing to register them. 
But Louis XIV. commanded his parliaments to register 
every decree of his without discussion or delay, and he was 
obeyed. 

The only national assembly in France — the States-Gen- 
eral — met only at the call of the king and had no real 
power. It consisted of the three divisions or estates of 
society : the Nobles, entitled to sit in it by right of birth ; 
the Clergy, by right of office ; and the Burghers, representa- 
tives of the Commons or Third Estate. The States-Gen- 
eral had met fifteen times by 1614, but during Louis XIV.'s 
long reign ( 1643-17 15) he never summoned this body. It 



1 6 MODERN FRANCE 

met only once thereafter, a most momentous meeting, as 
you will see. 

In the early part of Louis XIV. 's reign was reached the 
high water mark of prosperity under the Old Regime (ra- 
zheem'), or absolute monarchy. It was this king who built 
the great palace of Versailles (ver-sa'y'), and gathered there 
the most magnificent court in Europe. But the glories of 
the age of Louis XIV. were greatly dimmed by useless wars 
and by boundless extravagance, in which he was closely imi- 
tated by his nobles. As a result, the state was burdened with 
an immense debt, the taxes were greatly increased, and the 
Third Estate — the only class paying direct taxes — was re- 
duced to dire poverty. General discontent naturally ensued, 
which set in motion the thrilling series of events which over- 
threw the old monarchy and gave birth to modern France. 

II. THE MINORITY OF LOUIS XV. 

WHEN Louis XIV. breathed his last (i 71 5), the most 
unseemly rejoicings took place, for every one 
was dehghted that his seventy-two years' reign was at an 
end, and expected great things from his successor. Not 
only were the late king's remains insulted on their way to 
the Abbey of St. Denis (saN de-nee'), but his carefully 
drawn-up will was annulled — as, indeed, he had foreseen 
it would be. In fact, the five-year-old Louis XV. (great- 
grandson of Louis XIV.) was taken to the Parliament of 
Paris for the first time on purpose to have this will re- 
voked, and to have a nephew of Louis XIV., namely 
Philip, the Duke of Or'leans, appointed regent of the 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 



17 



realm during the new king's minority, instead of the per- 
sons named in the will. 

So that things may be quite clear, you must bear in 
mind that if Louis XV. were to die before marrying and 
having a son to succeed 
him, the crown would 
naturally pass to his 
nearest male relative. 
But this nearest relative 
was the king's uncle, 
who some years before 
had been made King of 
Spain, and was now 
ruling as Philip V. of 
that country ; and he 
had renounced all claims 
to the crown of France 
when he accepted that 
of Spain. 

After him, the next 
of kin was the regent, the Duke of Orleans, who was 
therefore heir presumptive. The regent, however, knew 
that Philip V. would claim the throne, notwithstanding 
his vows, and that such a move would involve Europe in 
warfare; so he hoped that the little king would live and 
grow up to have children, so that the question would 
never arise. Such good care was taken of the young 
king's health that, in spite of a naturally dehcate consti- 
tution, Louis XV. did live to reign fifty-nine years. 

The new master of France, the regent, was a talented 
but thoroughly unprincipled man, who, wishing to devote 




Philip, Duke of Orleans. 



1 8 MODERN FRANCE 

most of his time and energy to pleasure, intrusted the 
government to his former tutor, who was said to be master 
of all vices. They two canceled Louis XIV.'s will, freed, 
without question, the prisoners he had locked up in the 
Bastille (bas-teel') and elsewhere, and then took a general 
survey of the national situation. 

The finances were found to be in such a state that Saint- 
Simon — a nobleman who has left us fascinating Memoirs 
— seriously advised the regent to pronounce the state 
bankrupt ; that is to say, unable to pay its rightful debts. 
Bad as he was, however, the regent would not consent to 
this move, although he frankly acknowledged that things 
had been so mismanaged that if he were a mere subject 
he should certainly revolt, saying, '' The people are good- 
natured fools to suffer so long ! " 

Still, instead of trying to remedy these evils, the regent 
and his minister involved France in a short war with Spain, 
which added still more to the public debt. Then the re- 
gent allowed matters to drift on, while he spent most of 
his time in the Palais Royal (pa-le^ rwa-yal') in Paris, 
reveling with men so wicked that he often said they de- 
served to be treated like criminals and broken on the 
wheel (roues). Days and nights were thus spent in orgies 
of gambling, drunkenness, and other vices. 

Such being the case, no one could have an exalted opin- 
ion of the regent, to whom a lady once contemptuously 
said, " God, after having formed man, took the mud which 
was left, and out of that fashioned the souls of princes 
and footmen ! " Although the regent's sway lasted only 
eight years, his example did France untold harm, for too 
many of the nobles eagerly followed in his footsteps, and 



LOUIS XV. (17 1 5-1 774) 



19 



the people lost all respect for those whom they had hith- 
erto been taught to regard as their superiors. 

The regent is also to blame for not having given Louis 
XV. a good education, and for surrounding him with base 
flatterers who were anxious only to make him realize his 
own importance. One tutor, leading him to the palace 




Painu, J 



Garden Festival at Trianon, near Paris. 



window, once pointed out the fine gardens and the people 
assembled to greet him, saying, " Behold, Sire, all this 
people, all that you see, is yours ! " 

As the plain truth, if disagreeable, was never told him, 
Louis XV. naturally had a queer conception of things. 
Once, for instance, on hearing some mention of a ruler's 
death, he asked in great surprise, "What! do you mean 
to say that kings die .'* " Whereupon his embarrassed tutor 



20 MODERN FRANCE 

stammered, "Your Majesty, . . . yes . . . sometimes!" 
With such an education, and amidst such surroundings, it 
is no wonder that Louis XV. turned out to be a very bad 
king, Uke so many others of his time, and was selfish 
and unprincipled. 

In 1 71 7, when only seven years old, Louis XV. received 
a visit from Peter the Great of Russia, who, seeing a deli- 
cate little boy come slowly down the great staircase to 
greet him, picked the child up, kissed him on both cheeks, 
and then carried him upstairs, to the great scandal of the 
assembled court, which had been trained for two genera- 
tions in a stately and formal etiquette. 

It was in the same year that John Law, a Scotchman, 
proposed to the regent a scheme for bettering the trade 
and finances of the country by estabhshing a new kind of 
bank. This plan, if carried out exactly as John Law at 
first intended, would have been all right, as has been dem- 
onstrated in many countries. The regent, who was very 
clever, saw its advantages and therefore allowed John Law 
to open his bank in Paris. Until then, the only kind of 
money was specie (gold, silver, and copper), and though 
there were some bankers in Paris, there were no good 
savings banks or safe-deposit vaults ; so many people kept 
their funds under lock and key in their own houses. Even 
small fortunes thus proved both bulky and troublesome, 
all the more because people were sorely afraid of being 
robbed, as so many poor were out of work and in a des- 
perate condition. 

Law's scheme was to issue paper money and lend it at 
interest, keeping on hand sufficient gold or silver to redeem 
each paper bill on demand. He knew that many people 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 21 

would keep on using the paper money in business, instead 
of getting the coin for it. Indeed, many people who had 
gold or silver were only too glad to exchange it for paper, 
which was so much easier to carry or to conceal. Thus, 
before long, paper money was current everywhere, and 
Law's bank did a thriving business. On perceiving this 
fact, the regent declared that the bank should belong to 
the state, and, as soon as this transfer had been made, in- 
sisted that more paper money be issued, the crown lands 
serving this time as guarantee, as there was no more gold 
or silver to be had. 

Meanwhile, Law had organized the " Mississippi Com- 
pany," to which was given entire ownership of the vast 
French colony, Louisiana, in the Mississippi valley, besides 
a monopoly of the trade with other colonies. It was be- 
lieved that there would be found rich gold mines in the 
Mississippi country, so the shares of this company were 
bought by many people. Next, the company secured all 
the tax-farming business in France, which was known to 
be very profitable. 

Hitherto, the tax collecting had been done by many dif- 
ferent men known as farmers-general, each having charge 
of a stated district. A farmer-general did not merely col- 
lect money for the state, as tax collectors do now ; instead, 
he bongJit the right to collect and keep the taxes, having 
been told something like this : " You see, this district is 
assessed ^100,000, but some of the people can't pay, and a 
few won't pay promptly. If you will give the state say 
;^75,ooo cash, you shall have the right to collect these 
taxes, and if you are clever about it, you can easily make 
about $25,000." While honest farmers-general were con- 



22 MODERN FRANCE 

tent to make only the amount thus agreed upon, there were, 
I am sorry to say, others who increased the taxes and wrung 
as much money as they could out of the poor people with- 
out being punished for it. 

Law's company next lent the government, at interest, 
vast sums in paper money, with which to pay the public 
debt. Expeditions were sent out to find mines in Louisi- 
ana, and people believed that their gold would soon flood 
France. Shares of the company, selling at first for i^ioo, 
were soon resold for twenty times as much, and as there 
always are people anxious to get rich without doing any 
work in exchange, throngs came to the bank to buy as many 
shares as they could afford. In fact, such was the demand 
for shares that they actually could not be printed fast 
enough ! 

At the end of three years, — during which some people 
who had hitherto been poor, had been living like the rich, — 
the crash suddenly came. The gold mines in the colonies, 
which were to supply the coin to redeem the paper money 
and shares, had not been found as yet, so the printed paper 
suddenly became worthless ! A rhyme of the day thus 
describes the adventures of a shareholder : — 

Monday, I bought shares ; Lundi^fachetai des actions; 

Tuesday, I was a millionaire ; Mardi^je gagnai des millions ; 

Wednesday, I set up an establish- Merer edi, farrangeai mon 7nt- 

ment; nage; 

Thursday, I purchased a carriage ; Jeudi.je pris Equipage ; 

Friday, I went to a ball ; Vendredije jn'enfus au bal ; 

And Saturday ... to the poor- Et samedi . . . h Vhdpitall 

house ! 

When the fine scheme of John Law and the regent thus 
suddenly collapsed, the poor Scotchman barely saved his life 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 23 

by flight, leaving thousands of victims to reaUze that instead 
of being better off, as they had so fondly imagined, they 
were much poorer than before — which, you know, is the 
invariable result of such disastrous gambling fevers. 

While there were, as we have seen, some very bad peo- 
ple in France, there were also fortunately many good ones. 
When a terrible plague broke out in Marseilles (mar-salz'), 
carrying off eighty-five thousand people, Bishop Belzunce' 
and his clerical staff worked night and day, displaying such 
self-sacrifice and heroism that the memory of their noble con- 
duct still serves as an inspiration to their fellow-countrymen. 



— ooj*:©* — 

III. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 

THE king had barely been proclaimed of age at thirteen, 
when the wicked regent was stricken with apoplexy. 
As Louis XV. could not yet take charge of affairs, they 
were intrusted to the Duke of Bourbon, — a distant relative, 
— who selected Fleury (fle-ree') as his minister. They 
founded the French Exchange {Botci^se), and before long 
decided that it would be well for the young king to marry 
as soon as possible so as to have an heir. Louis had 
been betrothed to a little Spanish princess, who was being 
educated in France, and upon whom he is said to have 
bestowed a wonderful doll, worth ^5000. But as it would 
take this child years to grow up, it was decided to send her 
home and marry the king to Marie, daughter of a de- 
throned King of Poland (Stanislas Leszczynski), although 
the lady was seven years older than Louis XV. 

The future Queen of France was then living modestly 



24 MODERN FRANCE 

with her parents in a small town of Germany, little dream- 
ing of the exalted position awaiting her. But one day 
the proud father burst into the room where the prin- 
cess and her mother were busily sewing, crying out rap- 
turously, " Let us get down on our knees and thank God ! " 
When Marie thereupon wonderingly inquired whether he 
had been recalled to Poland, he replied, " Better still, you 
are to be Queen of France !" 

Princess Marie married Louis XV. in 1726, and showed 
her kind heart by immediately distributing among her 
friends and ladies-in-waiting the sum of money which 
her royal spouse sent her as a wedding gift (corbeille). 
Her delight was expressed in the simple exclamation, 
" Ah ! this is the first time in my life that I have been able 
to make presents ! " Louis's queen was good, amiable, 
gentle, and generous as long as she lived, but never had 
much influence over her husband, who neglected and in-- 
suited her. She was always a devoted mother to the many 
daughters whom her husband scorned at first, and called 
by numbers (Madam the First, Madam the Second, etc.), 
as well as to the long-desired son, — next to the youngest 
in the royal nursery. 

The same year that the king married, he craftily got rid 
of his minister, the Duke of Bourbon, by exiling him, and 
pretended thereafter to govern the country himself, although 
all he did was to sit in the council room, playing with a 
pet cat, while Fleury did the real work of ruHng France 
for seventeen years. 

When the ruling King of Poland died and an election took 
place to decide upon his successor, the father of Queen 
Marie secured so many votes that he thought it wise to 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 25 

attempt to recover his lost scepter. Louis XV. felt in 
honor bound to support his father-in-law's claims, and thus 
France became involved in the War of the Polish Succession 
( 1 733-1738). But after the French had won two battles 
in Italy over the allies of the rival candidate, a treaty was 
signed, which provided that the French queen's father 
should have Lorraine' instead of Poland, and should leave 
that province to France at his death. Thus Lorraine be- 
came part of France in 1766 and remained French until 
1 87 1, when, as we shall see, it was seized by the Prussians. 

Peace had not lasted very long, when another war broke 
out which was to involve all Europe, as well as some of 
the colonies. This is what is known in Europe as the War 
of the Austrian Succession, and in United States history as 
King George's War.^ By rights there should have been no 
war at all, for the late Emperor had made all neighboring 
kings swear not to molest his only daughter, Maria The- 
resa, whom he appointed, by Pragmatic Sanction (special 
law) and in his will, sole heir to the Austrian dominions. 

But as soon as this Emperor was dead, five different 
claimants for the Austrian lands arose, and in the conflict 
which resulted (i 741-1748), France, Bava'ria, Prussia, and 
Spain fought against Austria, England, Holland, and 
Russia. One of the serious engagements was at Det'tingen 
(1743), where George II. of England commanded in person 
and defeated the French. 

The next year, a great sensation was caused in France 
by the king's severe illness at Metz. In Paris six thousand 
masses were said at the great church of Notre Dame 
(no'tr' dam') for his recovery, and when the news finally 

1 See Guerber's Story of the Thirteen Colonies, p. 189. 



26 



MODERN FRANCE 



arrived that he was out of danger, his loyal people were 
beside themselves with joy. On hearing that they were 
calling him '* Louis the Well-Beloved," the king was so 
touched that he remorsefully cried, "What have I done 
to deserve such love ? " But whereas Louis XV. seemed 
truly penitent when near to death, he no sooner recovered 
his health than he fell back into all his self-indulgent ways. 




Painti.ig by Vernet. 



After the Battle of Fontenoy. 
(Officers reporting victory to the King of France.) 

Both the king and the Dauphin ( " the Dauphin " was 
always the title of the king's eldest son, heir to the throne) 
were present at the battle of Fontenoy (foNt-nwa^ 1745), 
when the EngHsh cried, " Gentlemen of the French Guard, 
fire first." " Fire yourselves, gentlemen of England ; we 
never fire first ! " retorted the Frenchmen, whose general 
had told them that those who began the fight were invari- 
ably beaten. Although this general (Marshal de Saxe) 
was very ill at the time, he nevertheless won a brilliant 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 



27 



victory, over which there was great rejoicing. This 
triumph was followed by others, and then the war was 
ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (ax-la-sha-peF, 
1748). The King of France, having haughtily declared 
that "he would treat hke a king and not like a merchant," 
retained none of his conquests ; besides, he consented to 
banish the Stuart princes from France, — the refuge of their 
family ever since the Revolution of 1688 in England.^ 

Shortly after the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had been 
signed, when France 
was just beginning to en- 
joy an eight-year period 
of peace, Louis XV. fell 
under the spell of the 
Marquise de Pompa- 
dour', a court lady whose 
original mode of dress- 
ing her hair proved fash- 
ionable in her day, and 
has since been revived. 
Such was the influence 
of this designing woman, 
that from 1748 to 1764 
she was practically re- 
gent of France, appoint- 
ing ministers and generals according to her fancy, making 
the king give her one fourth of the public money every 
year for private expenses, and setting a most pernicious 
example to both court and nation. 

Had she been a good and conscientious woman, Madame 

1 See Guerber's Story of the English, p, 286. 




Painting b>j La Tour. 

Madame de Pompadour. 



28 MODERN FRANCE 

de Pompadour was certainly clever enough to have done 

wonders, but she was really base, and so fickle that France 

had no less than twenty-five ministers of her choosing in 

eight years (1755-1 763). She worked hard, however, to 

charm the worthless king and to retain his favor, for she 

knew how selfish he was, and how easily she might be 

supplanted and forgotten. This is proved by the remark 

she once made, " If the king found some one else with 

whom he could talk about his hunting and his affairs, at 

the end of three days he would not know the difference if 

I were gone." 

— »o>*:o« 

IV. THE MISGOVERNMENT OF LOUIS XV. 



M 



ANY of the ministers throughout Louis XV.'s reign 
were very unscrupulous, making much money to 
line their own pockets by selling blank warrants {lettres 
de cachet). These warrants, — of which you will hear a great 
deal, — signed and sealed in the king's name, ordered the 
arrest and imprisonment, in the Bastille or any other state's 
prison, of the person whose name was to be written on a 
line, purposely left blank. 

The purchaser of such a blank warrant could fill it out 
whenever he chose, and forward it secretly to the police. 
Thereupon, the person whose name it bore was seized and 
locked up instantly, without knowing what for and without 
being granted any form • of trial. Any one who had an 
enemy, or bore a secret grudge, could purchase such 
a warrant, and thus get rid of the person who was in 
his way. We are told that Madame de Pompadour, for 
instance, actually sent a man to prison for thirty-five 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 29 

years, merely because he had written a mocking rhyme 
about her ! 

As one of Louis XV.'s ministers sold no less than 50,000 
of these blank warrants, and as over 150,000 were issued 
during his reign, you can imagine how many — probably 
innocent — persons were condemned to untold misery in 
this way. If you wish to learn the sad experience of one 
of these victims, you will find it in the interesting Tale of 
Two Cities by Charles Dickens. 

The king, whose duty it was to remedy such abuses, was 
instead amusing himself in many wicked and silly ways. 
Besides the hunt, his chief pastime was making tarts and 
candy, and he prided himself far more upon the dexterity 
with which he could chip off the top of a soft-boiled ^%g, 
than upon anything else. In fact, such was his puerile 
vanity, and such the silliness of the base courtiers whom 
he gathered around him, that when Louis chipped an ^^^ 
at breakfast, they always cried, " Long live the king ! " as 
heartily as if he had performed some heroic deed. 

Meantime, many of the people, sinking under the bur- 
dens placed upon them by tax collectors and nobles, were 
literally starving. Their sufferings and burdens seemed 
more intolerable than ever before, because they were now 
sufficiently well informed to realize how selfish and wicked 
this king was, and how much money was wasted in buying 
him royal mantles embroidered with gold and weighing one 
hundred and eighty pounds, besides rich jewels and other 
luxuries for his favorites. In fact, the king — once called 
the Well-Beloved — was now secretly hated, and some 
people were so convinced of his infamy and heartlessness, 
that they actually made an ogre of him, relating with bated 



^o MODERN FRANCE 

breath ''that he bathed in the blood of Uttle children" to 
keep a good complexion ! 

Such being the state of affairs, you will not be surprised 
to learn that an attempt was made to murder Louis XV. 
(1757). The would-be murderer, caught in the very act, 
and brought before the king, solemnly warned him, saying, 
" If you do not take the part of your people, you, the 
Dauphin and many others will perish before many years." 
But this warning fell upon deaf ears, and the execution of 
this man was fully as cruel as that of the assassin of Henry 
IV.,1 for he was first tortured, then partly hanged, and 
finally torn to pieces. 

With such an example as the king's in high places, you 
can readily imagine that many of the nobles also were lead- 
ing selfish, useless, and wicked lives. But fortunately there 
were still many good, honorable people left, such as the 
aristocrat who once, when taunted for his blameless life, 
answered haughtily, " I possess all kinds of courage except 
that which can brave shame." 

The French people — the commoners — resented their 
misgovernment more and more fiercely, for they had learned 
many things of late years, and were daily discovering more. 
The progress of literature in the " Age of Louis XIV." 
was almost, if not quite, equaled by the advance made in 
science under Louis XV. In fact, it has been said that "a 
revolution of ink " took place in this reign, when Diderot 
(deed-ro') published the first encyclopedia, Linnae'us clas- 
sified plants, Buf'fon wrote a natural history, and other 
scientists also did valuable work. 

The three greatest literary men of this time were Mon- 

1 See Guerber's S^rjy of Old France, p. 299. 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 31 

tesquieu', Voltaire (vol-tar'), and Rousseau (roo- so'), names 
which you will often hear. Montesquieu is noted for his 
criticisms of society and his historical studies ; Voltaire 
for his brilliant work in both prose and poetry; and 
Rousseau for his eloquent novels and fine educational 
theories. But, while preaching beautifully on the duties 
of parents to their children, Rousseau used to drop his 
own in the cradle then placed at the door of all found- 
ling asylums, simply because he did not want to have the 
trouble of bringing them up ! Still, notwithstanding his 
own bad morals and example, Rousseau gave excellent ad- 
vice, and his works had a tremendous influence in France 
for many years, although now they are principally admired 
for their beauty of style. 

The Seven Years' War — known in United States his- 
tory as the French and Indian War — lasted from 1756 
till 1763. It was occasioned by England's desire to mo- 
nopolize all the ocean trade, and by Austria's desire to re- 
cover territory lost to Prussia during the War of the Austrian 
Succession. In this conflict, France, Saxony, Austria, and 
Russia fought against Prussia and England, and the war 
raged not only in Europe, but also in America and in India, 
where the French had gradually been acquiring an empire, 
thanks to intrepid explorers and heroic soldiers. The 
most interesting part of this war took place in Canada,^ 
but there was also much fighting in Europe, where the 
French won several minor battles and lost several important 
ones (Rossbach, Crefeld, and Minden). 

The Seven Years' War, concluded by the treaty of Paris 
(1763), left France shorn of the greater part of her colonial 

^ See Story of the Thirteen Colonies, pp. 211-213. 



32 MODERN FRANCE 

possessions, Canada and India passing into the hands of the 
English, who have retained their hold upon them ever since. 

This war is also known as the "War of Madame de 
Pompadour," because she chose most of the generals who 
carried it on. When she perceived that the king seemed 
distressed after one of the defeats, she comforted him, un- 
til he could cheerily repeat his favorite maxim, "Things 
will last my day," to which she recklessly added, "After 
us, the deluge ! " You see, she was so very selfish that 
anything which did not touch her closely seemed of no 
moment at all. 

It was in the course of the Seven Years' War that the 
" Family Compact " was first made by the minister Choiseul 
(shwa-zel'),' whereby the Bourbon rulers of France, Spain, 
and parts of Italy promised to uphold one another, the 
enemy of one country being henceforth considered a foe 
of all. 

Two years after the war was ended, Louis XV. lost his 
son, the Dauphin, a very promising young man, who left 
three sons, all of whom were to reign over France in turn 
v(Louis XVI., Louis XVIII. , and Charles X.). The same 
year, the king's favorite, Madame de Pompadour, also 
passed away , and the cold-blooded monarch, when he 
saw rain falling on the day of her funeral, calmly re- 
marked, " The Marquise will not have good weather for 
her journey." These were his only words of sympathy 
for a woman for whom he had spent many, many millions 
of the state money! 

But one favorite being gone was only the signal for the 
appearance of another. The weak and vicious Louis XV. 
now became the tool of a woman of common birth, who 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 



33 



was known as Madame du Barry (ba-ree'). She was even 
more extravagant than Madame de Pompadour, encouraged 
the king in his evil ways, ran the state ever deeper into 
debt, and scandalized all decent people by her manners 





m J 




f§ 


^m^' -M^-' ^^ 


^K_. 


i 


i£m ^'^'- * 


I^tI 


ifr 



Faituing oy Cain. 

Pajou making a Bust of Madame du Barry. 

and language. She swore openly, talked the lowest kind 
of slang to induce the king to smile, and encouraged the 
ministers to consider the people solely " as a sponge to be 
squeezed." 

ooJOiOO 

V. MARRIAGE OF MARIE ANTOINETTE 

THE States-General had not been called to meet since 
1614, so the people could make their grievances 
known only by means of petitions, — which were generally 



34 MODERN FRANCE 

disregarded, — or through the parliaments, assemblies of 
judges and lawyers in some of the great cities. The Par- 
liament of Paris becoming troublesome on account of its 
repeated demands for redress of grievances, the king was 
glad to heed the warning given by Madame du Barry when 
he was once gazing at the portrait of the unfortunate 
Charles I. of England. Said she : " Look, France ! there 
is a king whose head was cut off because he was indulgent 
to his Parliament. Go, now, and be indulgent to yours ! " 
Owing to this taunt, Louis XV. exiled seven hundred 
members of parliament (1771) before calling a new assem- 
bly, which was composed of men carefully selected by the 
chancellor Maupeou (m5-pa-oo'), and was hence derisively 
called " Maupeou's Parliament." 

But the grievances continued, the court expenditures 
increased, and the misery of the poor became so intense 
that we are told more men died of hunger in one year than 
were slain in the course of all Louis XIV. 's wars ! This 
sad state of affairs was well known to the king, who paid 
no more heed to it than to the funeral he once met, when, 
having inquired of what disease the man had died, and 
having been curtly told, " Hunger ! " he merely shrugged 
his shoulders and passed on. 

The Jes'uits — members of the Society of Jesus, founded 
by Loyo'la — had done much in France, as in other coun- 
tries, to stamp out Protestantism and build up the Roman 
Catholic Church. But in the exercise of their great in- 
fluence through preaching and teaching and as a political 
force in the affairs of state, the Jesuits soon became the 
objects of great dislike on the part of many — notably the 
writer Pas'cal. When they also incurred the disHke of the 



LOUIS XV. (1715-1774) 35 

king, they were banished from France, as they had already 
been driven from some other European countries. 

To gain riches for himself, Louis XV. took part in a 
disgraceful speculation to raise the price of wheat. This 
still further intensified the sufferings of the poor, upon 
whom fell the heaviest burdens of taxation. 

Louis XV., who fully believed that " the king is master, 
and necessity justifies everything," required so much money 
for his court and his pleasures that taxes were nearly 
doubled during his reign. His nobles also spent vast 
amounts, being very particular about their clothes, lace 
ruffles, silk stockings, and jewelry. Those who paid most 
attention to these trifles were, in those days, called " maca- 
roni," a name with which Americans are familiar because 
it occurs in "Yankee Doodle." As such courtiers liked 
to have their pictures painted, they often patronized such 
artists as Mignard (meen-yar') and Boucher (boo-sha'), 
who were so fond of finery that even their shepherds are 
clad in silks and lead snow-white sheep by blue or pink 
ribbons ! Thus, you see, everything was artificial, and 
nothing plain and real. 

The minister (Choiseul) who incurred the people's 
hatred by raising the taxes has the credit of restoring 
the navy of France, and of negotiating (1770) a mar- 
riage between the king's grandson — the new Dauphin 
— and Marie Antoinette (aN-twa-net'), a daughter of 
Maria Theresa, the heroine of the War of the Austrian 
Succession. 

When Marie Antoinette came to France, a merry girl 
of fifteen, to be married to a heavy, awkward, yet good- 
natured lad of sixteen, she found a stiff court, ruled by 



36 MODERN FRANCE 

the etiquette which had been in practice for about one 
hundred years, and which was severely enforced by a 
mistress of ceremonies whom Marie Antoinette disre- 
spectfully called '' Madam Etiquette." All the formality 
now surrounding her proved intensely tiresome to a 
lively young girl, who, besides, felt the utmost contempt 
for Madame du Barry, — the most important person in 
the palace, for the old king was merely her puppet. You 
will see that scorn for long-established customs, although 
natural enough, was to do Marie Antoinette much harm 
in time. 

Besides a Dauphiness, — who was to be one of the most 
famous and unfortunate queens of France, — the country 
acquired during Louis XV.'s reign not only the province 
of Lorraine, but also the island of Cor'sica. This island 
was acquired from Gen^o-a only a few months before the 
birth of Napo'leon Bo'naparte (Aug. 15, 1769), who — thus 
by accident born a Frenchman — was for many years to 
make history for Europe. 

During Louis XV.'s reign, also, — thanks to the efforts 
of patriotic citizens, — military, engineering, and medical 
schools were founded ; the first asylum for deaf-mutes was 
instituted ; a few fine roads were built ; the porcelain factory 
of Sevres (saVr') was established ; the Panthe'on was 
erected; street lamps were installed; and the first art 
exhibition was opened to the public. 

But in 1774 this long reign came to an end. Louis XV., 
who was a loathsome man, suddenly caught a loathsome 
disease, and died of smallpox. The terrible harvest he 
had so guiltily sown was left to be reaped by his innocent 
grandson, Louis XVL 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 37 

VI. BEGINNING OF LOUIS XVL'S REIGN 

WHILE Louis XV. was slowly breathing his last, his 
grandson and heir, Louis XVI., — then only twenty 
years old, — was waiting with his young wife, Marie Antoi- 
nette, for news of his death. A candle, burning in the 
king's window, was to be quenched as a signal when the 
end actually occurred, and as its light went out the young 
couple fell on their knees together, crying : " Oh, God, 
guide us and protect us ! We are too young to reign ! " 

But only a moment was granted them in which to ask 
divine help for the great task awaiting them ; for all the 
courtiers were already racing along the palace corridors, 
'* making a noise like thunder," each anxious to be first to 
hail the new sovereign by name and do him homage. 

The present king was a contrast to the last in every re- 
spect, for he was pious, virtuous, slow in motion and mind, 
and very anxious to do his duty so as to relieve the people, 
whom he sincerely pitied. Louis XVI. was also very mod- 
est. Even when he was a little boy, if some one praised 
him, he was wont to say, ''You surely mean my brother, 
for he is the clever boy ! " His brothers were, indeed, far 
more clever than he, but unfortunately they were not nearly 
so good, for they thought only of their own advantage, and 
gave the slow-witted king very bad advice at times. 

Although Louis really meant to do all that was right and 
proper, he had not been well trained for his position, and 
had, besides, grown up with the worst of models in the 
court ever before his eyes. He therefore did not know 
exactly where to begin or what to do, but set a good ex- 
ample in morals to court and people, dismissed the wicked 



38 MODERN FRANCE 

persons who had had so much influence over his grand- 
father, and placed the government in the hands of good 
ministers, among whom we can name Turgot (tiir-go') and 
Malesherbes (mal-zerb'). 

Everybody now hoped great things for the country, for 
one morning an inscription was found upon the pedestal 
of Henry IV. 's statue to the effect that he had come to life 
again in Louis XVI. The next day, however, an addition 
was made to it, purporting that the good tidings would be 
believed only when every citizen had a chicken in his pot,^ 
— showing that mere promises would no longer satisfy the 
nation. 

In his leisure moments, when not busy with affairs of 
state, Louis amused himself with map making — for geog- 
raphy was one of his hobbies ; taking lessons from a lock- 
smith in the art of making keys and locks ; and spending, 
besides, much time in hunting. For his young wife's 
amusement, he bestowed upon her the Little Trianon 
(trya-noN'), a miniature palace with grounds of its own in 
the park of Versailles. There the queen laid out an 
English garden, and built a tiny model village, in which 
she, her husband, and the court could play at being 
rustics. Her chief delight was to make buttei; and cheese 
in her dainty dairy, while her husband, who prided himself 
upon his great strength, often acted the part of miller, 
carrying heavy sacks of grain to the mill to be ground into 
flour for his wife's bread and cakes ! Another favorite 
pastime consisted in picnics, and once, when Marie Antoi- 
nette was thrown by a sportive donkey, she sat on the grass 
laughing merrily, and told the courtiers, who rushed up to 

1 See Story of Old France, p. 292. 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 



39 



^1 


mlfe 


\ 


1 


1 




1 


m 






1 


1 


-<^^^^^H 


1 



Dairy in the Little Trianon. 



help her remount : " Go get the mistress of ceremonies. 
She will tell you what etiquette prescribes when a Queen 
of France cannot manage to stay on her donkey ! " 

The simple occupations the court now affected would 
have been harmless, had not important duties been waiting, 
which should have occupied all the time of both the king 
and the queen of such a great country. But the poor 
young people — one nineteen, the other twenty years old 
— did not know any better, and in time had to pay not 
only for their own innocent shortcomings, but for the 
awful sins of their predecessors as well. 

Meantime, every one was watching them closely, for it 
was whispered at court that two bad omens heralded an 
unlucky reign. The first was that, when the people as- 
sembled near the Tuileries (tweel-ree') — an old palace in 



40 MODERN FRANCE 

Paris — to see fireworks set off in honor of their wedding, 
a misdirected rocket had occasioned a stampede, which 
caused the death of many persons. The second bad sign 
was that at the coronation the king complained of his 
crown, saying : " How heavy it is ! It hurts me ! " This 
was enough for superstitious people, and when the crown 
indeed became too heavy for this blameless but simple- 
minded ruler, many people declared they had long foreseen 
what would come to pass ! 

It was said that *' under Louis XIV. no one dared speak, 
and under Louis XV. people spoke only with bated breath," 
but no one was at all afraid of good-natured Louis XVL, 
and therefore "everybody spoke aloud." Because the 
king hesitated, not knowing what to do, everybody felt 
called upon to give him good advice. His clever brother, 
called Monsieur (me-sye'), the young queen, and the court- 
iers all claimed his ear in turn. Like many dull people, 
Louis was always inclined to believe the last speaker, and 
therefore often changed his mind. One of his brothers 
accurately described the situation to a minister by saying, 
" When you can make a pyramid of a number of oiled 
ivory balls, you may do something with the king ! " 

— »o>»:oc — 

VII. TURGOT'S MINISTRY 

THE minister Turgot had governed one French prov- 
ince well for many years, and had prevented the 
people there from suffering from hunger like the rest of 
the nation, by planting potatoes. Until then, root crops 
(turnips, beets, carrots, and potatoes) had been neglected 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 41 

in France, so at first people distrusted the new food, believ- 
ing it would produce terrible diseases. But when they saw 
that Turgot himself ate potatoes, and when the king wore 
potato blossoms in his buttonhole, popular opinion began 
to change. 

There is, besides, another famous story of how people 
were induced to raise potatoes. It is said that Turgot or 
another man had a sandy stretch planted with them, and 
carefully guarded the growing crop, but artfully let it be- 
come noised abroad that it was precious beyond price ! Of 
course, such secrecy and care aroused popular curiosity, 
and it was generally believed that if potatoes had to be 
guarded so closely, they must be extra good. Very 
soon, therefore, a few were stolen and stealthily planted, 
and before long the new food became popular every- 
where. 

When Turgot took charge of the affairs of France, he 
found them in a desperate condition. The debt was larger 
than ever before, the revenues were in confusion, and ex- 
penses were greater than income. Still, Turgot was hope- 
ful of bringing order out of chaos in time, if the king 
would only uphold him. This Louis XVI. faithfully 
promised to do, knowing that Turgot was capable and had 
good intentions, for he often said, ** There is no one save 
Turgot and me who love the people ! " 

As Turgot was honest, he did not declare the state bank- 
rupt ; on the contrary, he proposed to cut down expenses, 
and to ease the burdens of taxation. His policy was, " No 
bankruptcy, no increase of taxes, no loans." He also 
encouraged his master in effecting such reforms as restor- 
ing the Parliament of Paris, and freeing those who had 



4^ 



MODERN FRANCE 



been unjustly imprisoned. The result was that the people 
were soon really better off than they had been for more 
than a hundred years past ; but unfortunately they had 
suffered so much that their patience was almost exhausted, 
and gradual improvement failed to satisfy men who wanted 
everything at once. 

Turgot kept on working hard to improve conditions for 
two years, but as the king was always interfering, by yield- 
ing first to this adviser and then to that, the minister finally 
gave up all hope of doing much good. On leaving, he 
said, *' All I desire, Sire, is that you may always be able 
to believe that I was shortsighted and that I pointed out 
to you fanciful dangers ! " Later on he also wrote to the 
master whose downfall he was not to live long enough 
to witness, " Do not forget. Sire, that it was weakness 
which put the head of Charles I. of England on the 
block ; that it was weakness which produced the League 
under Henry III.,^ and which made slaves of Louis 
XI IL^ and of the present King of Portugal ; it was 
weakness also which caused all the misfortunes of the 
late reign." 

In spite of these solemn warnings, Louis continued weak; 
he could not help it. As we shall see, it was his weak- 
ness and his pernicious habit of putting things off which 
caused the outbreak of the terrible French Revolution. 

Louis's other great minister, Malesherbe, like Turgot, 
also found difficulties too great to. contend with, and when 
he handed in his resignation, his master exclaimed with an 
envious sigh, " You are very lucky, for you can give up 
your job ! " This feeling became more intense as time 

* Sfory of Old France, pp. 267-279, 298-315. 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 43 

went on, for when another minister (Vergennes) died in 
1787, the king said, gazing down into his tomb, "Oh, 
how happy I should be if I were only lying beside you 
in that grave ! " 

^oXXoo — 



VIII. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

AS Marie Antoinette had no babies to take care of 
during the first eight years of her marriage, she had 
plenty of time to amuse herself with her dairy village ; to 
act in plays with the Count of Artois (ar-twa'), her youngest 
brother-in-law; to study the music of Mo'zart, Gliick, and 
Gretry (gra-tree'), whose operas she loved; and even to 
meddle in government affai-s. But in 1778 her first child 
(Marie Therese Charlotte), who was to be known as 
Madam Royal, came to enliven the palace of Versailles, so 
the queen devoted herself to the care and education of this 
little one, instead of giving her up to governesses and 
attendants, as had hitherto been the custom at court. 
From that time on Marie Antoinette ceased to be frivolous, 
and proved the best of mothers, not only to this little 
girl, but to three other children who came later on. 

It was shortly after Louis XVL's reign began that war 
broke out between England and her American colonies 
(1775). As you have doubtless read much about that 
war in other books, you will now be especially interested 
in the part which France took in the struggle. Twelve 
years before, as you remember, France had been obHged 
to give Canada to England (1763), and the French still felt 
sore about their loss. When Benjamin Franklin came to 



44 MODERN FRANCE 

Paris, therefore, in search of aid for the rebeUious Thirteen 
Colonies, he was warmly welcomed, not only because he 
was already favorably known on account of his marvelous 
scientific discoveries, but also because he represented a 
people who were trying to secure the hberty about which 
recent writers had said so much. 




Faintiiuj by Jolly. 

A French Reception in Honor of Benjamin Franklin. 

While Louis XVI. was hesitating whether or not to help 
the Thirteen Colonies, Lafayette, a young French noble- 
man, left his wife, freighted a vessel himself, and, escaping 
secretly from France, sailed across the ocean to offer his 
services to General Washington. But, knowing that to aid 
the Americans openly would involve war with England, 
Louis XVL could not at first be induced to do anything 
except to supply money; still, in 1778, he at last signed 
a commercial treaty with the United States at Versailles. 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 45 

Thus France, you see, was the first European power to 
recognize the new nation. 

As Louis had foreseen, this move resulted in war with 
England, which, being far too busy elsewhere to fight the 
French on land, merely challenged their men-of-war in 
naval duels. As the French took the utmost interest in 
the conflict between England and her colonies, they made 
a lion of Franklin, who remained in their midst about nine 
years, spending pleasant hours with such famous scientists 
as Mes'mer (the man whose discoveries in animal magnetism 
received the name of Mesmerism), and MontgoFfier, whose 
first balloon was tried before the court of Versailles in 
1 783. Whenever people asked Franklin how the American 
Revolution was getting on, he used to say, — nodding 
his head confidently, for his French was imperfect, 
— " Ca ira ! " (sa ee-ra'). This laconic expression, which 
can be translated, " That will be all right ! " so amused 
everybody that it was generally adopted, and became at last 
the rallying cry of the French Revolution, as well as the 
refrain of a popular song. 

Now, as you know, FrankHn's prophetic words came 
true; things did go all right for the United States. But 
after their independence had been duly recognized by the 
treaty of Paris (1783), France discovered that she had run 
herself still further into debt by the help she had given the 
Americans. Besides, the young men who had gone across 
the Atlantic to lend the Revolutionary army aid, came back 
full of their adventures, wild with admiration for the Ameri- 
can people, and anxious to instill into the minds and 
hearts of their countrymen the republican ideas they had 
recently absorbed. 



46 MODERN FRANCE 

During part of this time, the finances of France had been 
in the hands of a Swiss banker, Neck'er, who tried to re- 
duce expenses in every way, but only succeeded in angering 
everybody by his constant talk of economy. His successor, 
Calonne (ca-lon'), believed in acting very differently, for 
whenever the king and queen doubtfully inquired whether 
anything could be done, he used to reassure them by say- 
ing, " If it is possible, it is already done ; if it is not possible, 
it will be done." But, so as to do things, Calonne reck- 
lessly borrowed right and left, thus adding ;^ 100,000,000 to 
the state debt, before making place for Brienne (bree-en'), 
who found it necessary to borrow still more. 

It was about this time that the idyllic story of Paul 
and Virginia by Bernardin de St. Pierre (ber-nar-daN' 
de saN pyar') first appeared (1788), and that plays by 
Beaumarchais (bo-mar-she'), criticizing the aristocracy, be- 
gan to become popular, although when they first came out 
they encountered the king's censure. The most famous 
artists of the day were Vernet (ver-ne') for landscapes 
and marines, Greuze (grez) for fancy {^genre) subjects, and 
Madame Lebrun (le-bruN'), to whom we owe the best pic- 
tures of the royal family, as well as charming studies of her- 
self and her child. 

OoJO^CHJ 

IX. THE QUEEN'S NECKLACE 

THE most thrilling event in the court life of this period 
was the affair of the Diamond Necklace (1784), 
which you must hear in detail, as it had a fatal influence 
later on. King Louis XV. had ordered from the court 
jeweler a ^450,000 necklace of diamonds for Madame du 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 47 

Barry ; but as he died before it was ready, the half-finished 
necklace remained on the jeweler's hands. Having spent 
large sums to get and match the stones, this man felt that 
he would be ruined if he could not dispose of the completed 
necklace, so he now offered it to Marie Antoinette. But, 
having two children, — a daughter and son, — she was in- 
clined to be more serious and saving than she had been. 
As she would not do anything more than to praise his 
wares, the jeweler next applied to the king, who, devoted 
as he was, immediately offered to present the wonderful 
necklace to his wife. 

But Marie Antoinette now restrained her husband, saying 
she had jewels enough, and that the money would be far 
better employed in adding a ship or two to his navy, which 
sensible advice Louis XVL gladly took. The jeweler now 
went from court to court, hawking his necklace, but finding 
no one with money enough to spare to buy so costly a 
bauble. In his despair he finally returned to the French 
queen, it is said, and fell at her feet, beseeching her with 
tears to buy his wares, and thus save him from ruin ! 
This theatrical scene greatly annoyed Marie Antoinette, 
who, deeming the man crazy, sent him away as soon as 
possible. 

There was then at court a French nobleman, Cardinal 
de Rohan (ro-aN'), who was anxious to regain the queen's 
favor, which he had forfeited by a wicked life and by 
wanton slanders he had spread regarding her. Still, the 
royal couple were top kind-hearted to resent anything very 
long, so after a few years' banishment, the cardinal was 
allowed to return to court, where a fashionable astrologer 
(Cagliostro) had, it seems, predicted that all would go as 



48 MODERN FRANCE 

the cardinal wished. In some obscure position at Versailles, 
at that time, there was also an adventuress named Ma- 
dame de la Motte. This woman wanted money badly, and 
often thought how lucky she would be if she could only 
get hold of the wonderful diamond necklace. Being as 
clever as unprincipled, she soon hit upon a plan to se- 
cure it. 

Madame de la Motte and the astrologer persuaded the 
cardinal that the queen was anxious to have the diamonds, 
and would be most grateful to any one who would arrange 
so that she could purchase them without telling the king. 
Nobody now knows whether the cardinal was the dupe of 
these two clever schemers, or whether he was a third party 
in their dishonest plans. However that may be, Cardinal 
de Rohan soon went to the jeweler, and declared that the 
queen wished him to buy the necklace in her name, 
promising that the full price should be paid within a year 
and a half by installments. 

This was welcome news for the despairing jeweler; still, 
he was too shrewd to give up his necklace until he had the 
queen's written promise. Cardinal de Rohan, therefore, 
undertook to get it, and actually came back a few days 
later with a paper signed " Marie Antoinette de France." 
Now, both merchant and cardinal should have known that 
it was only the children of French kings who added '* de 
France" to their signatures, yet both men overlooked this 
forgery, and necklace and paper changed hands. 

Meantime, Cardinal de Rohan had been deluded by 
Madame de la Motte into believing that the queen herself 
had stolen down into the garden one moonlight night, and 
had allowed him to kiss her hand. But in reality it was a 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 49 

young actress who had come there, after bemg coached 
to personate the queen. The cardinal, of course, expected 
to deliver the necklace to Marie Antoinette in person, but 
Madame de la Motte, disguised as a royal footman, took 
charge of it, reporting that the queen was too ill to see 
him. Then the adventuress carried the precious necklace 
off to her own room, where her husband pried the diamonds 
out of their settings, and secretly sent them to England to 
be sold. 

While these rascals were living in luxury on the proceeds 
of their theft, the queen continued no more gracious to 
the cardinal than before, and never appeared in public 
wearing the necklace. Then, too, the payments were not 
forthcoming as promised. The jeweler waited impatiently, 
and one day — being summoned to court by the queen, 
who wished to buy a wedding present for one of her maids 
— he ventured to beg her for money, saying he had already 
written, but had received no reply. Although the queen 
had received the letter he mentioned, she had thrown it 
into the fire, thinking the man was crazy, a belief which 
was strengthened by this strange request for money. 
Finding himself dismissed without pay, the desperate 
jeweler now went straight to the king, although it was 
Sunday morning, and poured out the whole story. Louis 
XVI. immediately sent for the queen, and then for Car- 
dinal de Rohan, who had just been celebrating mass in the 
Versailles chapel. 

The cardinal at once appeared in. the king's study, 
but when questioned, stammered and contradicted him- 
self so sorely, looking so embarrassed, that Louis kindly 
bade him go into the next room, and write what he had 



50 



MODERN FRANCE 



to say, since he could not speak plainly. There the 
cardinal wrote an even lamer statement, but before be- 
ginning it, he scribbled a note which he handed to one 
of his servants. According to the instructions thus given, 
this servant hastened home and burned all the papers 
contained in a red portfolio. These papers were not only 
the correspondence in regard to the diamond necklace, but 
also many proofs of the wicked life the cardinal had hitherto 
led, which he did not wish any one to see. 

On reading the cardinal's written statement, accusing 
the queen of having a secret understanding with him, 
the king became so angry that he ordered Rohan's arrest, 
vowing that he should be tried immediately. But as the 
cardinal was a priest, the clergy were indignant that 
he should be arrested in canonical garb ; and as he was re- 
lated to many of the nobles, they, too, were furious to think 
that one of their number should be treated like a common 
wrongdoer. Both of these influential classes, therefore, 
set to work to influence the Parliament so that no unfavor- 
able sentence should be pronounced. 

The trial took place ; king, queen, and everybody was 
present. It was proved at the end of six months that the 
diamonds had passed into the hands of the De la Mottes, 
and that the paper signed by "Marie Antoinette de France" 
was a mere forgery. The Parliament was glad to defy the 
king by finding the cardinal not guilty ; but it sentenced 
Madame de la Motte to be whipped and branded as a thief, 
and then shut up in prison. The astrologer was banished, 
the cardinal was sent away from court, and the queen was 
really acquitted of all knowledge of the affair. 

But the wretched De la Motte woman soon made her es- 



LOUIS XVI. (I774-I792)' 51 

cape to England, where she began to write pamphlets about 
the Queen's Necklace, claiming that she and the poor car- 
dinal had been made scapegoats for Marie Antoinette's sins! 
These pamphlets were scattered far and wide, smuggled 
into France, and read everywhere, in spite of the king's 
attempts to suppress them. Now, many people are ready 
to believe anything that is printed, and most people say that 
a wife who makes debts and hides the fact from her hus- 
band is dishonest. Poor Marie Antoinette, therefore, was 
generally considered not only cowardly because she allowed 
some one else to bear the punishment of her sins, but also 
wanting in honor and decency, and terribly extravagant, 
since she purchased high-priced ornaments when her people 
were starving ! 

Many of the old court ladies, who disliked her because 
she made thoughtless fun of their grand manners when 
she was a merry girl, had always spoken ill of her, declar- 
ing she was nothing but a ** foreigner," and generally 
calling her " the Austrian." Now the people in general 
exclaimed that it was no wonder there was a deficit in the 
nation's finances, when the queen was extravagant enough 
to purchase ^450,000 worth of diamonds at once ; and they 
dubbed her " Madam Deficit." In fact, such was Marie 
Antoinette's unpopularity after this affair, that the king no 
longer dared let her visit Paris, for fear lest she should be 
insulted in his capital ! 

Meantime, Louis XVI. continued to relieve the public 
misery to some small extent by private charities. He 
chided those who spent money to refurnish his rooms, re- 
marking sadly, *' I could have supported thirty families 
for a year with that sum ! " During the cold winters he 




Painting by Lebrun. 

Marie Antoinette and her Children, about 1787. 

(52)- 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 53 

sent many loads of wood to the poor, and once with inno- 
cent pride pointed out his train of sledges to the courtiers 
when they gleefully exhibited their elegant pleasure 
vehicles. 

OOJ^JOO 

X. THE FALL OF THE BASTILLE 

THE heavy taxes collected from the common people 
(Third Estate) were still far too little to pay the in- 
terest on the public debt and the running expenses of the 
government. Because of the awful want of money, Louis 
XVI. called a small assembly of notables (1787), hoping to 
obtain good advice ; but the nobles and clergy would not 
consent to be taxed, and the assembly accomplished noth- 
ing. The ParHament of Paris refused to register decrees 
for new taxes on the people, but was compelled to yield. 
However, the prime minister Brienne, in proposing an 
addition to the public debt, promised to convene the States- 
General, which had not met for one hundred and seventy- 
five years (since 1614), but for which the people were now 
clamoring. 

Brienne did not intend to keep his promise, but he soon 
lost his place, which was given again to Necker; and 
Necker persuaded the king to call the States-General. The 
call for the election was therefore at last made ; and 
as the king decided that he must remain in Versailles for 
the hunting, the nobility, clergy, and elected represent- 
atives of the Third Estate were summoned to meet there 
on the 6th of May, 1789. 

The opening of the States-General was a solemn pag- 
eant. King, queen, court, nobles, priests, and citizens 



54 



MODERN FRANCE 



{bourgeois) — representing the thirty-two provinces in 
France — marched in imposing procession to the great hall, 
where Louis made a brief address, in which he " assured 
his people of his affection," and urged them to do nothing 
rash. Then Necker, his minister, read a long speech, in 
which the States-General were requested, principally, to 
devise means whereby state finances could be satisfactorily 
supplied. 

When these preliminaries were all over, the members of 
the assembly, left alone to deliberate, immediately began 
to quarrel. In olden times there had been only about as 
many representatives of the Third Estate as of the nobles 
or of the clergy. But since then the population and im- 
portance of the lower class had increased greatly, and 
thanks to Necker there had now been summoned twice 
as many commoners as usual, so that they were slightly 
greater in number than both nobles and clergy combined. 
Hitherto, it had been customary for the three orders to 
sit and vote in separate rooms, each order casting one vote, 
but the Third Estate now demanded that all should meet 
and vote together in one room. 

The king was pestered by deputations, each wanting 
him to do this or that, while he was distracted by the fatal 
illness of his eldest son, the Dauphin, who died on the 4th 
of June. This was the second child to leave the royal 
nursery, a little sister having died when a year old. Little 
did people then dream how fortunate the boy was to go 
thus, and be spared the tortures endured by his poor 
young brother, who is known as the second Dauphin. 

When members of the States-General clamored to see 
Louis XVL, a few days after his son's death, he despair- 



LOUIS XVI. (1774-1792) 



55 



ingly cried, " Shall I then not even be allowed to weep 
for my child ? " But the king could not be granted much 
leisure to nurse paternal grief, for in spite of his many 
wise concessions and reforms, the people were now in such 
a ferment of discontent, that no less than three hundred 
riots took place in the country within four months' time. 




Fainting by David. 



The Tennis Court Oath. 



Hoping to end the disputes of the three orders, which 
threatened never to end, Louis XVL suddenly ordered the 
hall closed, under some trifling pretext. But, thus shut 
out, the Third Estate met tumultuously in the Versailles 
Tennis Court, where, after a lively discussion, they bound 
themselves, by the famous "Tennis Court Oath," never to 
separate until they had given a new constitution to France. 

Next, the king in person, at a meeting of the States- 
General, commanded the three orders to retire each to its 
own room, to sit separately. The nobles and the clergy 



56 MODERN FRANCE 

accordingly went out when the king did, but the Third 
Estate remained. When again ordered to go, their spokes- 
man, Mirabeau (mee-ra-bo'), boldly replied to the royal 
messenger, " Go and tell your master that we are 
here by the will of the people, and that we will not go 
until driven out by bayonets." Louis XIV. could say, 
"/ am the state !" -^ but his successor could not, for the 
voices of the people were now loudly declaring, *' We are 
the state!" 

Four days later the long dispute was ended as the Third 
Estate wished, and it was finally settled that the three 
orders should meet and vote together (June 27). This 
agreement was brought about mainly by the pleas of a few 
members of the nobility, and by many of the clergy, who, 
knowing how much the people suffered, were anxious to 
relieve their distress as soon as possible. 

The States-General, instead of merely supplying funds 
as Necker wished, now began to discuss the causes of 
popular discontent. They discovered that most of the 
trouble could be ascribed, ist, to ten successive years of 
bad harvests ; 2d, to class privileges ; 3d, to various serv- 
ices which the people had to render free of charge to 
their superiors ; and 4th, to the bhndness of royalty in not 
perceiving sooner how times had changed. 

Although the king gently explained all the improvements 
he had already made, nothing would content the States- 
General save the right to have a voice henceforth in gov- 
ernment affairs, the assurance that their assembly should 
not be disbanded until it had finished its constitutional 
work, and a formal promise that States-General should 

1 S^ory of Old France, p. 329. 



FALL OF THE BASTILLE (JULY 14, 1789) 57 

henceforth meet at regular intervals. It seemed as if after 
these claims had been granted, everything might have run 
on smoothly, had not the news come that Necker had been 
dismissed, and that the king was collecting troops near 
Versailles, presumably to awe the people and their 
representatives. 

When these tidings reached Paris, then a city of 800,000 
inhabitants, — many of whom were out of work, — Desmou- 
lins (da-moo-laN^), an eloquent young patriot, made a fiery 
speech in the garden of the Palais Royal, urging the mob 
to rebel. This speech proved like a spark in a keg of pow- 
der, and when Desmoulins next suggested that the citizens 
stick green leaves in their caps as a rallying sign, the 
trees in the garden were stripped in the twinkling of an 
eye. The excited multitude then marched around the city, 
carrying a bust of Necker; and after coming to blows 
with a body of troops, proceeded to plunder the arsenals. 
Then, fully armed, they rushed madly off to tear down the 
Bastille, the terrible fortress where so many prisoners had 
once been confined, and from whose towers cannon could 
easily destroy the homes where so many of them lived. 

Had the Bastille been properly provisioned, it could 
have held out for many months ; but its governor being 
assured that no one would be injured if he opened the 
gates, preferred to do so rather than further infuriate 
the mob. No sooner were the doors opened, than the 
people swept in to liberate the prisoners. They found 
seven in all, four of whom were forgers, two insane, 
and one an unfortunate young man with a tendency to 
drink, who was kept there out of harm's way at his father's 
request. The Bastille had already, you see, ceased to be 




O 






c 

o 

H 




(58) 



FALL OF THE BASTILLE (JULY 14, 1789) 59 

a prison filled with innocent people, arrested by royal 
warrant and detained there without trial. 

The mob had been admitted, but the promises made by 
some of the leaders were utterly disregarded by others, 
who seized the governor, and, while leading him off to the 
city hall (Hotel de Ville), suddenly decided to hang him. 
Street lamps had recently been introduced in Paris ; they 
were swung from great iron brackets, and to be filled or 
lighted they were hoisted up and down by means of a 
rope. These iron brackets being strong, and a rope so 
handy, when the frantic cry suddenly arose, " To the 
lamp with him ! " (A la la7iterne\ a host of volunteer hang- 
men proceeded to dispose of the poor man. The rope, 
not designed for such an office, repeatedly broke; still, the 
wretches persevered until their victim's sufferings were at 
an end. And that terrible cry, thus heard for the first 
time at the execution of the governor of the Bastille, was to 
be repeated with alarming frequency in the course of the 
next few years. 

While some of the mob were thus hanging an innocent 
man, the remainder had already begun to demolish the 
Bastille, many of the stones of which were used later for 
the construction of one of the bridges across the Seine 
(Pont de la Concorde). This fall of the Bastille, July 14, 
1789, is considered the Declaration of Independence of 
the French people, who now celebrate its anniversary just 
as Americans do their 4th of July. 

The news about its capture reached Versailles, about 
ten miles away, in the middle of the night, and when the 
king was roused to hear what had been done, he exclaimed 
in dismay, ** Why ! this is a revolt ! " 




(6o) 



THE REVOLUTION BEGINS 6i 

''No, Sire," replied his informer gravely, "it is a Revo- 
lution ! " 

This man was right ; the terrible French Revolution had 

begun. 

»o>a<oo 

XL THE MOB AT VERSAILLES 

FEELING that something must be done immediately 
to pacify the excited Parisians, Louis XVI. an- 
nounced on the very next day the recall of Necker" and 
the dismissal of the troops. He also consented to the 
people's choice of Lafayette as general-in-chief of the 
National Guards, — the militia of Paris, — and Bailly 
(ba-yee') as mayor of Paris, making them responsible 
for order in the capital. Then the king, who was no 
coward physically, drove straight off to Paris, where the 
mayor received him at the gates, presenting the keys, 
as usual, with this speech : " Sire, I am bringing to your 
Majesty the keys of your good city of Paris. They are 
the same that were presented to Henry IV. ^ He had 
reconquered his people ; now the people have reconquered 
their king ! " 

Proceeding to the city hall, the king was next met by 
Lafayette, who offered him a blue and red badge, the 
colors of Paris. The king graciously accepted this pledge 
of amity, suggesting, however, that the white of royalty 
be placed between them. The combined colors so pleased 
Lafayette, — already familiar with the American red, white, 
and blue, — that he exclaimed with enthusiasm, "Sire, this 
cockade will go around the world ! " 

1 Story of Old France, p. 289. 



62 MODERN FRANCE 

But pretty speeches could not stop the ball once set 
rolling, and when the news sped from mouth to mouth 
through France that the Parisians had pulled down the 
Bastille, mobs elsewhere, fired by such an example, began 
to set fire to castles here and there. Besides, the cry of 
"Bread! Bread ! " was heard on all sides, and many bread 
riots took place. One official was reported to have said 
to those who complained they had no bread, ''Well, go 
out then and eat grass ! " In a riot he was hanged 
from a street lamp bracket, then taken down, and his 
severed head was paraded through the streets with its 
mouth stuffed full of hay. Many others were summarily 
disposed of in this way, yet so fickle is a mob that we are 
told one man saved his life by dryly retorting, when they 
proposed to hang him up instead of the lamp, " Well, will 
you see any better when you have done so ? " 

The report of murders, burning castles, and uncontrolled 
mobs proved more than the nerves of some aristocrats 
could endure, so they hastily packed up and left the country, 
fully intending to return as soon as all was safe. Because 
these nobles emigrated, or left their native country, they 
were generally known as "the emigres" (a-mee-gra'). 
Among the first to go was the younger brother of the 
king, who hastened to put his precious head in safety, 
leaving his elders to manage as best they could. At first 
all tidings of such departures were hailed with delight, the 
people crying, " So much the better ; France is being 
purged ! " But later on the nation resented the flight of 
its aristocratic class, against which it nursed a bitter 
grudge. 

There were still, however, many truly patriotic noblemen 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (1789-1791) 63 

in France, who, seeing the people were angry because the 
nobles had "privileges," — paid no direct taxes, paid no 
wages for a certain amount of labor from the peasants, 
etc., — and hoping to prevent a general uprising of the 
peasants, volunteered to give up all their privileges and 
feudal rights. The States-General — known since the Ten- 
nis Court Oath as the National Assembly — -accepted their 
offers, and issued, besides, many decrees in favor of the 
people, announcing among other things that thereafter all 
citizens should have the right to profess any religion they 
pleased in France, where '' there was now but one land, 
one nation, one family, and one title — that of French 
citizen." 

Just as it began to look as if things would quiet down, 
the people of Paris — who were nearly starving — became 
exasperated at news that a grand banquet had been given 
to a regiment at Versailles. When the king, queen, and 
Dauphin had appeared there for a moment, it was said, 
they were greeted by enthusiastic cries of, " Long live 
their Majesties ! " and white cockades — the royal colors — 
were substituted for the red, white, and blue, which were 
basely trampled under foot. 

Such a report proved enough to make the caldron boil 
madly again. One woman, seizing a drum, began to beat 
it loudly, proclaiming that all the women ought to march to 
Versailles to demand bread for themselves and their starv- 
ing families. In less time than one would think possible, 
nine thousand women of the lowest class in the city set out 
for Versailles, shouting, " Bread ! Bread ! " every step of 
the way. Many men joined them. Lafayette, who was 
responsible for order in the city, after vainly trying to stop 



64 MODERN FRANCE 

this mob, summoned his troops to follow, so as to see that 
no harm would ensue ; but his movements proved so lei- 
surely that the rabble reached Versailles before he did. 

In front of the royal palace, the cries of this mob rose 
shriller and shriller, until the king came out to pacify 
them, promising even to return with them to Paris on the 
morrow. Then the mob began to clamor for the queen, 
but as she was known to be misjudged and disliked, king 
and ministers tried to prevent her from responding to these 
calls. Brave Marie Antoinette, however, taking a child 
in each hand, stepped quietly out on a balcony, in full view 
of the throng. 

Silence received her, then all at once the yell arose : 
" No children ! No children ! " Still without a tremor, 
Marie Antoinette led the children in, and came out again, 
alone, expecting to be stoned to death, but showing no 
fear. It was this dauntless courage that saved her, for 
the people stood paralyzed by astonishment, until La- 
fayette, who had just arrived, stepped out on the bal- 
cony, and in full view of the crowd respectfully kissed the 
royal hand. Then a sudden revulsion took place, cheers 
arose, and the queen could at last rejoin her anxious 
family. 

Lafayette, thinking all was well, soon went off to bed, 
leaving the people camped in front of the palace, where, 
for lack of other food, some of them killed and ate one of 
the guard's horses. Then some of the rioters, unable to 
sleep on the hard stones, prowled around until they found 
a door open and unguarded, through which they entered 
the palace. Heated by drink — for although they lacked 
bread, they never seemed to lack wine to excite them to 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (i 789-1 791) 65 

commit deeds of violence, — these men suddenly determined 
to kill Marie Antoinette, '' the Austrian," " Madam Defi- 
cit," the cause of all their woes. They therefore boldly 
forced their way to her bedroom, two of her guards losing 
their lives in vain efforts to prevent their advance. 

Fortunately, this struggle afforded the queen time to es- 
cape by a private passage to the king's room, just as the 
rioters burst into her chamber and began madly to thrust 
their swords and pikes through her curtains, blankets, and 
mattress. In fact, it was only when these were fairly 
riddled with holes, that the discovery was made that their 
hated victim was not there ! The king, who was too soft- 
hearted to hurt anybody, and evidently unaware that 
*' humanity to mobs often proves inhumanity to mankind," 
would not allow these men to be seized and punished, but 
had them coaxed out of the palace, to await morning and 
the promised departure of the royal family for Paris. Then, 
as he managed to delay the start until early afternoon, 
some of the mob set out in advance to announce his com- 
ing, bearing aloft as trophies the heads of the two murdered 
guards ! 

The journey to Paris was made terrible by the heat and 
dust, and by the coarse men and women who went with 
them all the way, shouting madly, "We are bringing the 
baker, the baker's wife, and the baker's boy ! " and point- 
ing in confirmation to fifty cartloads of grain which they 
had found in a royal granary. This journey was termed 
the " Joyous Entry " by the populace, but was nothing 
short of torture for the haughty queen, and was never for- 
gotten by the royal children, who were frightened almost 
out of their senses. 



66 MODERN FRANCE 

Versailles was now deserted — a fact made clear by a 
sign which expressed popular sentiments and read : — 

" Palace to rent, Palais a latter. 

Parliament for sale, Parleme7it a vendre, 

Ministers to hang, Ministres a pendre, 

Crown to give away ! " ■ Couronne a donner ! 

The royal family were never to live in Versailles again, 
but were instead to occupy the palace called the Tuileries 
in Paris, which had not been prepared for their coming, 
and where they were very uncomfortable at first. But after 
a while things got better, and their Majesties held there 
many conferences with prominent men, Mirabeau, espe- 
cially, promising at last to do all he could to serve them. 

oo-i^o^ — 

XII. DEATH OF MIRABEAU 

THE king having left Versailles, the National Assembly 
immediately transferred its headquarters to Paris, 
where it continued the work of making new laws for France. 
As money was badly needed, it was decreed that all church 
property should belong to the state, that part of it should 
be sold, and that many monasteries and convents should 
be closed. The monks and nuns thus made homeless, 
although told they were no longer bound by their vows, 
refused in many cases to be released from them, living 
on charity, or earning their bread as best they could in a 
wicked world. 

On the other hand, it was decreed that all priests were 
henceforth to be paid by the state; but a later law re- 
arranged the bishoprics, provided that bishops and priests 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (1789-1791) 67 

should be chosen by the voters, and required all priests to 
take a " civic oath," or promise of fidelity to this law. As 
some of the clauses of this law conflicted with their 
previous vows, only about a tenth of the clergy would 
consent. The remainder were not allowed to continue in 
office, or even to give their services to stanch CathoHcs, 
who considered that priests who had taken the civic 
oath had committed perjury. This belief — shared by the 
king and queen — was upheld by a decree from the Pope, 
forbidding all priests to obey this order. The French 
government took its revenge by seizing and annexing 
Avignon (a-veen-y6N', 1790), which had belonged to the 
Holy See some four hundred and eighty-two years,^ and 
which now went to form one of the new departments into 
which the Assembly divided France, after abohshing the 
former provinces. 

By confiscating the property of the church, which had 
naturally been growing wealthier as time went on, the state 
was vastly enriched. Still, as this property was mainly 
land, and could not be sold immediately, a sufficient amount 
of paper money w^as issued, the stipulation being made that 
purchasers should pay for church lands in paper money, 
which the authorities would destroy as soon as paid in. 

The National Assembly also decreed the aboHtion of 
the irksome salt tax, the suppression of royal warrants, 
and the institution of regular juries. 

In spite of all these innovations, popular agitation was 
not subsiding, for many political clubs had been founded, 
— clubs which took their names as a rule from the halls 
where they met (Jacobins, Cordeliers, Feuillants, etc.). 

1 Story of Old France, p. 141. 



68 



MODERN FRANCE 




!li'-&'Si| 



;*> '^*5l^'"SJ j» ' 1 1^:5^'*'*^% 



fi 



j'Tom an old print. 



Hall of the Jacobin Club. 



In each of these assembUes, ardent and eloquent speakers 
aired their views, for now that the press and pubHc speech 
were no longer hamperedj all that had hitherto been 
suppressed, or only spoken of in whispers, was proclaimed 
openly. 

When one year had elapsed after the fall of the Bastille 
(whose key, by the way, had been sent by Lafayette to 
Washington and is still at Mount Vernon), the people 
wished to celebrate this anniversary in a fitting manner. 
The *' Federation Festival " was therefore planned and 
held on the Field of Mars, in front of the Invalides (aN- 
va-leed') or Home for Veteran Soldiers^ In the center of 
this immense parade ground was erected a mound of earth, 
on top of which was placed the " altar of the country." 
Around it were arranged tiers of grass seats, or terraces, 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (1789-1791) 69 

from which spectators could view all that was going on. 
Tal'leyrand — a very clever but very unprincipled ex-priest 
— officiated at this altar, where Lafayette took the civic 
oath for the army, Bailly for the National Assembly, and 
the king publicly swore fidelity to the whole nation. The 
queen, who was present, then held up the Httle Dauphin, 
who swore, too, to the frantic deHght of the people ; and 
they, after having unanimously registered their own oaths, 
hurried off to dance on the site of the fallen Bastille ! 
Thus, you see, all seemed satisfactory, for the king had 
apparently recovered the confidence and affection of his 
people, who even cheered his family ; but this joyful 
demonstration was to be the last in favor of their Majesties, 
whose worst days were rapidly drawing near. 

The coming of these evil times was hastened by the 
political clubs, which, while they undoubtedly did some 
good, also worked untold harm, for people who know 
naught of self-government cannot undertake it safely all 
at once. The fact was that, having been told that all men 
are equal, all wished to command, none were willing to 
serve or obey ; even in the army, discipline became so lax 
that the troops at Nancy shot their own commander ! 

Necker, who had thrice been minister of finance in 
these troublous times, now withdrew in despair to his 
home in Switzerland, and his successor rashly proceeded 
to issue more paper money, this time without any proper 
guarantee. The money, however, was sorely needed to 
support the increased national forces, as well as to indem- 
nify slave-owners in Haiti, where colored people were first 
enfranchised and granted political rights by the French 
government. 



70 MODERN FRANCE 

Early in the year 1791, the people made a grand dem- 
onstration in honor of the man whom they affectionately 
called "little Mother Mirabeau." Although still quite 
young, this man had led such a fast hfe that he had little 
strength left, and easily succumbed to disease. Because 
he made fine speeches almost to the very end, and because 
he said many noble things, such as *' Right is sovereign 
of the world!" the people mourned his untimely death. 
They gave him a grand public funeral, burying him in 
the Church of the Pantheon, which, having been set aside 
as a resting place for national heroes, was then adorned 
with the inscription it still bears, '' To great men, in the 
name of a grateful country." {Ahx grands Jwmines^ la 
patrie reconnaissante.) A httle later the words '' Liberty, 
Equality, Fraternity" {Liberie, Egalite, Fraternite) — the 
usual formula of the French Republic — were added to the 
above dedication. 

Mirabeau's death proved a great loss to the royal family, 
which ever since their arrival in Paris had been aware of 
the fact that they were being closely watched, and that 
spies lurked even among their body servants. They 
therefore had to exercise the utmost caution, often not 
daring to trust their letters to the public mails for fear 
they would be opened. For that reason, Marie Antoinette 
sent some of her ladies abroad with important papers, and 
especially with the keys for the ciphers she meant to use 
thereafter. These keys were for the king's brother and 
for her own brother, the Emperor of Austria, as well as for 
various trustworthy subjects and friends, who were to 
correspond with her in cipher. 

In this manner, the king and queen secretly learned that 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (1789-1791) 71 

the emigres were furious at the tidings they received from 
France (the destruction of property, aboHtion of privileges, 
etc.), and that rulers of neighboring countries were 
becoming seriously uneasy lest the new French ideas 
should invade their realms also, and deprive them of 
power, like Louis XVL 



:>XKc 



XIIL THE FLIGHT TO VARENNES 

THE king's brothers and the principal Royalists strongly 
advised the king to leave Paris, the center of the 
storm, and join the emigres and the armies they were rais- 
ing, so as to return to his capital with their aid and dictate 
terms instead of having them forced upon him. The royal 
family accordingly decided to depart; but, knowing that 
any open attempt to leave the city would be hindered, and 
would tend to make their situation even more unbearable, 
Louis XVL decided to escape in disguise (June, 1791). 
- Unfortunately, far too elaborate preparations were made 
for this venture, so that the start was not made until six 
weeks after the decision was reached. Then the royal 
family stole out of the palace in small detachments, to 
join the great traveling coach which had been built for a 
Russian lady (Marie Antoinette), traveling with her two 
daughters (Madam Royal and the little Dauphin, dis- 
guised as a girl), a lackey (the king), and a maid (Madam 
Elizabeth, the king's sister). As all the roads were bad, 
and all vehicles very clumsy in those days, the great trav- 
eling carriage lumbered slowly on ; still, all went well until 
the king, who naturally felt anxious, stuck his head out of 



72 MODERN FRANCE 

the window, and was recognized by the well-known fea- 
tures stamped on every coin in his realm. 

The man who thus discovered the royal flight just as 
the horses were being changed at a relay station, had no 
chance to stop the fugitives there. So he sprang on a 
horse, and, by a short cut, reached Varennes (va-ren') and 
roused its citizens before the arrival of the coach. It was 
at Varennes, also, that the king expected to meet a mili- 
tary escort, which would have protected him the rest of 
the way ; but this escort, by some misunderstanding, was 
waiting patiently at one end of the town, while the king 
was arrested in the other by citizens hastily armed with 
any weapon they could procure. In spite of all Louis's 
entreaties to be allowed to continue, these sullen people 
would not let him go, declaring they had sent a messenger 
to Paris, and that he must await the orders of the As- 
sembly. 

The result was that two members were. dispatched from 
Paris to bring back their Majesties, and home they went, 
escorted by a rabble nearly as repellent as the one which 
had brought them from Versailles the year before. The 
slow return journey was accomplished under the most un- 
comfortable circumstances, for in the carriage — full at 
starting — now sat also the two members of the Assembly, 
who constantly talked politics to their weary captives. 

The queen had to hold the Dauphin in her lap all the 
way, and there was only one seat for the king's sister and 
daughter, who therefore took turns sitting in each other's 
lap. Throughout those long hours of anxiety and mar- 
tyrdom, Marie Antoinette never uttered one word of com- 
plaint, but kept the six-year-old prince quiet by gently 



\ 



LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791-1792) 73 

whispered words, which he always heeded, for he was a 
good child and simply adored his beautiful mother. 

The dusty procession reached Paris at last, where they 
were received with dead silence, for the Assembly had de- 
creed, "Whoever applauds the king shall be flogged ; who- 
ever insults him shall be hanged." On reentering their 
palace, where they were now openly guarded like danger- 
ous prisoners, the royal family could at last rest, and were 
soon relieved to learn by secret means that the king's 
brother (who had started at the same time as they) had 
managed to escape, and that the queen's hairdresser had 
safely crossed the frontier with her jewels. 

While the royal family was thus held in durance vile, 
the people buried Rousseau and Voltaire in the Pantheon 
with great pomp, and the Assembly finished drawing up 
the new constitution, which gave the lawmaking power to 
an elective Legislative Assembly, and left the king only 
the power to veto (forbid) the execution of any new law 
for four years. Nevertheless, the long-suffering monarch 
accepted this code (Sept. 14, 1791), publicly swearing to 
obey it. Of course, the king and deputies knew what 
all the words in this constitution meant, but the common 
people, who had no education, were greatly mystified, 
especially by the word " veto." Still, there always are 
persons ready to explain even what they do not under- 
stand, and the following dialogue, overheard between 
two peasants, indicates the general belief among the 
mob : — 

" Do you know what the veto is ? " 

"No." 

''Ah, well ! you have your porringer full of soup. The 



74 MODERN FRANCE 

king says to you, ' Pour out that soup,' and you have to 
pour it out ! " 

"Ah ! down with the veto then ! down with the veto ! " 

As "veto" was thus taken to mean something hateful 
and objectionable, the people began to call Marie Antoinette 
" Madam Veto," in addition to the other horrid names 
they had already bestowed upon her. 

You cannot wonder, therefore, that, trembling constantly 
for the lives of her husband and children, the queen kept 
urging her brother to help them, and implored the French 
nobles to do their duty and come and defend their king. 
One of her messages was, " If you love your king, your 
religion, your government, and your country, return! 
return ! return ! " 

When the framing of the constitution 'was finished, 
the National Assembly dissolved, to make room for the 
new Legislative Assembly, to which, by a strange provi- 
sion, none of the members of the former body were 
eligible. Thus some very good men were excluded from 
government affairs, while some of the most rabid club men 
came to the front in their stead. This Legislative 
Assembly remained in power nearly twelve months. The 
various parties in it were called, from the seats they 
occupied, "the Right," "the Left," "the Mountain" 
(highest seats), and "the Center." As some of its 
members were in favor of a constitutional monarchy, 
others of a republic, and as some were even what we 
should now call Communists, you can readily imagine that 
lively times were in store. 

The news of the captivity of the royal family, and es- 
pecially of a constitution depriving the king of practically 



LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791-1792) 75 

all rights, — as well as of the titles "Sire" and "Your 
Majesty," — caused a great sensation abroad, and induced 
Prussia and Austria to sign a treaty, whereby they bound 
themselves to help Louis XVI. recover his power. But 
before these intentions could be carried out, the Austrian 
Emperor died, and was succeeded by his son, a nephew of 
Marie Antoinette. Meantime, the fact that any European 
nation dared purpose to step in and tell the French govern- 
ment what should be done, so enraged a hot-headed people 
that war was immediately declared, and troops hastily dis- 
patched to the northeastern frontier, the most liable to 
attack. Some regiments were therefore stationed at 
Strass'burg, where the mayor — giving a dinner to a few 
officers — happened to remark, that it was a great pity 
there were now no patriotic songs for the soldiers to sing, 
the old ones not being suited to the new constitution. 

This remark was overheard by Rouget de ITsle (roo- 
zha' de leeF), one of the guests, who, unable to sleep that 
night, and haunted by the desire to supply the necessary 
song, sat up all night, composing the words and tune of 
what was to be a famous national song. He was not 
aware of the fact that it was wonderful in any way until 
he sang it the next day to the mayor, — one of whose 
daughters played the accompaniment for him, — and saw 
tears of emotion flow from the eyes of all present. *The 
mayor immediately had some copies of this song printed 
and Sent in various directions. One sheet reached Mar- 
seilles just as a regiment was leaving for Paris. It was 
sung to the men, who enthusiastically roared it on their 
march to Paris, thus popularizing the new tune, which 
every one then thought had originated in the great southern 



76 



MODERN FRANCE 




Painting by Pils. 



Rouget de I'lsle singing the Marseillaise. 



French port. Hence it was called *'la Marseillaise" (mar- 
se-yaz'). 

Meantime, the king had further estranged the people by 
unwisely vetoing several laws passed by the Assembly. 
Besides, the mob — who were not fit to join the army, 
but were still out of work, and lacking everything except 
strong drink — were listening to every rumor, and distort- 
ing every fact they did not understand. They were ready 
to rush madly here or there at short notice, at the com- 
mand of their leaders, many of whom were saloon-keepers, 
brigands, and criminals of the lowest class, men, in short, 
whom it would have been far wiser to clap in prison. 
These people wore rudely shaped trousers with blouses or 



LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791-1792) 77 

carters' frocks coming down to their knees, — the latter 
garment being even the only one worn, by some of the 
poorest, — besides the red liberty cap (the old Roman sign 
of an enfranchised slave), and clogs or wooden shoes. It 
was only the well-to-do in France who could afford the 
knee breeches so fashionable in those days, because such 
garments made necessary long stockings, which were very 
costly before machinery was invented to manufacture them 
in quantities. But as the aristocrats who had fled at the 
first sign of trouble were deeply scorned by the mob, the 
rabble now proudly termed themselves the "men without 
breeches," or sans-culottes (sanz-cia-lots', or, saN-cii-lot'), a 
name which they delighted to flaunt in the face of the foe. 



^XXo*^ 



XIV. MOBS RAID THE TUILERIES 

THE old adage, " Satan finds some mischief still for idle 
hands to do," is well exemplified by the actions of the 
Paris mob at this time. When the news suddenly came 
that Prussian and Austrian forces had beaten the French 
army, all France was instantly in a turmoil. The clubs in 
Paris cried that treason was at work, and the mob, always 
ascribing everything evil to king and queen, immediately 
rushed off to the Tuileries to call them to account. In- 
stead of banners, — the red flag of liberty now generally 
replaced the white of royalty, — they brandished aloft on 
this occasion a pair of trousers, with the inscription " Sans 
Culottes," an ox heart marked " Heart of an Aristocrat," 
and a miniature gallows, from which dangled a doll boldly 
labeled '' Marie Antoinette. " 



78 MODERN FRANCE 

Roaring out at the top of their lungs the popular " ^a 
ira " (see page 45), and dancing the " Carmagnole" (car- 
ma-nyol'), — a wild jig interspersed with all manner of 
rough cries and oaths, — they rushed on to the palace, 
where they soon broke in and scattered in search of their 
Majesties. Discovering the king alone in one room, the 
mob immediately began to demand this and that, to which 
Louis XVI. calmly replied, " I will do all the constitution, 
prescribes," but would promise nothing further. Think- 
ing he might feel frightened, — and any one might under 
such circumstances, — one man, who had given the king a 
red cap to put on, said reassuringly, " Fear nothing, Sire, 
I will protect you ! " But he was greatly surprised when 
he received the prompt reply : " Do you think I fear ? 
Place your hand upon my heart. You will find no quick 
beatings of terror there." Still, the king good-naturedly 
accepted the glass of wine which another man offered him, 
and stood patiently for hours while the mob filed past him. 

He was not the only brave person in the palace, how- 
ever. The mob, having found his sister, began to insult 
her, thinking she was the queen, and when some one near 
her attempted to explain the mistake. Madam Elizabeth 
imploringly whispered, '' Do not undeceive them ! " for 
she hoped to spare one pang at least to the poor sister-in- 
law whom she loved so dearly. The mob, pressing ever 
onward, finally discovered their error, and crowded angrily 
around the queen and her two children. To protect them 
and herself from the repulsive throng, Marie Antoinette 
placed her son on a table, behind which she and her 
daughter could stand, and with hands that did not tremble, 
fitted a red liberty cap on the Dauphin's golden curls. It 



LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791-1792) 79 

was then and there that the following pathetic dialogue 
took place : — 

Marie Antoinette. " Have I ever done you any harm ?" 

Woman. " No, but you are the cause of the misery of 
the nation ! " 

Marie Antoinette. "You have been told so, but you 
are mistaken. As the wife of the King of France, and 
the mother of the Dauphin, I am a Frenchwoman. I 
shall never see my country again. I can be happy only 
in France. I was happy when you loved me." 

Woman. " I beg your pardon. It was because I did 
not know you. I see that you are good." 

This raid on the Tuileries was witnessed by a young 
officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, who, gazing at the wild 
mob from a street corner near by, is said to have mut- 
tered : " Why have they admitted all that rabble ? They 
ought to sweep off four or five hundred of them with can- 
non ; the rest would run fast enough ! " As you will see, 
this officer never hesitated to mow down people with 
grapeshot, for he was never troubled with too great sympa- 
thy for others, and could easily kill a few hundred without 
remorse, — a thing kindly Louis could never countenance. 

The news of the invasion of the palace, and of the royal 
family's danger, roused the utmost indignation abroad, 
where talk of a coalition of all the European nations was 
now frequently heard. The French, reahzing therefore 
that they were Hkely to be attacked on all sides at once, 
immediately declared the country in danger, and called for 
volunteers, who, fired by patriotism, enlisted in hosts. 

It was shortly after the second celebration of the Feder- 
ation Festival (three years after the fall of the Bastille) 



8o MODERN FRANCE 

that the Marseilles troops marched into Paris, singing 
''the Marseillaise," just in time to take part in a second 
invasion of the Tuileries (Aug. lO, 1792), instead of main- 
taining order in the capital, as had been expected. This 
time, as there had been some warning of the mob's coming, 
cannon were set in place and loaded, while eight hundred 
Swiss guards and twelve hundred nobles stood ready to 
defend the royal family at the king's order. But Louis 
XVI., knowing how ignorant and misled the majority of 
the rioters were, had not the heart to use decisive means 
and to shed blood. He therefore again forbade using the 
cannon, and allowed the mob to invade the palace. 

As the rabble, this time, seemed even more excited than 
the last, the king announced that he and his family would 
leave the palace by the rear, cross the garden, and place 
themselves under the protection of the Legislative Assem- 
bly, to prevent bloodshed. Some say that Louis XVL sent 
word to his Swiss guards that he was leaving, bidding them 
offer no resistance ; others declare that the order was for- 
gotten or transmitted only to part of the force. However 
that may be, the in-rushing mob slew most of the king's 
defenders, who died fighting bravely. Their heroic death 
is commemorated by the '' Lion of Lucerne," in Switzer- 
land, carved in the living rock by the Danish sculptor 
Thorvaldsen (tor-val'sen). 

Meantime, the royal family had crossed the garden, — 
the little Dauphin playfully kicking the dead leaves before 
him, — and had entered the Legislative Assembly, where 
they were kept waiting some time in the corridor, although 
the king announced immediately on arriving, '' I have 
come here to prevent a great crime." Then they were 



LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (i 791- 1792) 



81 




:r' III sv r I hMBRts XtDcexcy, 



The Lion of Lucerne. 

finally allowed to sit in the reporter's box, where they suf- 
fered from heat, confinement, hunger, and thirst, until the 
Assembly announced that the king should be " suspended," 
and that, for safe keeping, he and his family should be 
committed to the great fortress called the Temple.^ 

There, instead of occupying the luxurious apartments 
recently inhabited by princes, they were put in the prison 
tower, where every comfort was lacking, and whence only 
one of. them was to come out again free. Five days later 
Lafayette, who had hitherto done his best to maintain 
order and discipline, secretly left France, and it was well he 
did so, for hundreds of the king's friends were now being 
thrown into prison. House-to-house visits were being 
1 See S^o>y of Old Fra^ice, p. 142, 



82 MODERN FRANCE 

made to discover and imprison all " suspects"; that is to 
say, all aristocrats, and the priests who maintained their 
allegiance to the Pope and Church, and who might hence 
be inclined to give aid or information to the foe. 

These people, and the few faithful subjects who had 
followed the king and queen to the Temple only to be 
parted from them, were locked up in various prisons, 
where, on the first few days of September, a terrible 
massacre took place, hundreds of priests and aristocrats 
being cruelly butchered by volunteer assassins hired by the 
city government of Paris — part of the mob which had twice 
invaded the Tuileries. These " September Massacres " 
were suggested by Danton (daN-toN'), whose motto was, 
*' Dare, dare again, dare ever," and were brutally urged by 
Marat (ma-ra'), for the people had declared, " We must 
leave no traitors behind us when we hasten to the frontier," 
and every priest and aristocrat loyal to the king was now 
viewed as a traitor to his country. 

Only the most rudimentary trial was given to these un- 
fortunates, nearly all of whom were led out and promptly 
put to death by four hundred tigerlike cutthroats ! Madame 
de Lamballe (laN-bal'), the queen's virtuous and beautiful 
friend, was hacked to pieces, and her head was borne off 
on a pike to be exhibited in triumph to the prisoners in the 
Temple. But a merciful fainting fit saved Marie Antoi- 
nette from this ghastly sight, which horrified the king 
when he gazed curiously out of a window to discover the 
cause of the sudden tumult. 

Many thrilling stories are told of the courage and devotion 
shown during these awful days. One daughter, it is said, 
saved her father by pleading with the judges, offering her 




(83) 



84 MODERN FRANCE 

own life in exchange for his; and another young lady, 
having no alternative, saved her father by drinking a glass 
of the blood of one of the freshly slain victims ! 

But popular rage was turned to delirious joy when, a 
few days later, the French general Dumouriez(dii-moo-rya') 
won the battle of Valmy (val-mee'), just as the Legislative 
Assembly was ending its work and the National Conven- 
tion entered upon its duties. The latter body had been 
elected to frame a new constitution for France, and it re- 
mained in control of the government for three years. This 
Convention — which had the honor of founding a School 
for Arts and Crafts, a Normal School, and a Polytechnic 
School, of introducing the metric system and the signal 
telegraph (semaphore), besides giving France a new 
calendar — began its sittings by formally deposing Louis 
XVL and proclaiming the First French Republic (Sept. 21, 
1 792) " one and indivisible." A decree of perpetual banish- 
ment was passed against the emigres, who were forbidden 
to return to France on pain of death. 

A few days later French armies conquered Savoy' and 
Nice (nees), and the allies, beaten on all sides, were forced 
to withdraw from France. Then patriotic hearts soon 
after were gladdened by the news of another victory at 
Jemappes (zhe-map', 1792), a triumph which secured Bel- 
gium, and went to the heads of the Revolutionists to such 
an extent that the Convention now boldly declared, " The 
French will treat as enemies any nation which, refus- 
ing liberty and equality, desires to preserve its princes 
and privileged castes, or to make any compromise with 
them ! " 




(85) 



86 MODERN FRANCE 

XV. THE KING'S TRIAL 

IT did not seem enough, however, to dethrone poor King 
Louis XVL, for he was now to be called to account 
for the sins of his fathers. His ordeal began by his being 
separated from his family, with whom he had been living 
within the Temple walls during the past five months. 
Next, he was summoned before the Convention to be 
tried, where all former respectful modes of address were 
discarded, and he was bluntly addressed as '' Louis," 
or " Louis Capet." While he was allowed a lawyer, — 
who pleaded eloquently in his behalf and did his utmost to 
save him, — the Convention had so thoroughly made up 
its mind in advance to condemn him, that even slow-witted 
Louis perceived it, for he said, " They will bring me to the 
scaffold, but no matter, I shall gain my cause if I leave 
an unspotted memory behind me ! " And his lawyer once 
despairingly exclaimed, " I seek judges in you, and find 
nothing but accusers!" 

Everything that could be trumped up against his poor 
Majesty was now brought to light, and his weakness in 
often changing his mind was made a capital crime. Papers 
were produced which were said to have been found in an 
iron box hidden in his palace wall, and which proved that 
the king had been corresponding with his brothers 
and other emigres, as well as with Austria, begging them 
to lend him their assistance in his sore straits. 

While it was a foregone conclusion that he would be 
found guilty, it may be that Louis's life might yet have 
been spared, had not Danton suggested, referring to the foes 
of France, " Let us throw them the head of a king as gage 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 87 

of battle ! " As soon as the trial was over, votes were 
taken on several questions, each member stepping forward 
to proclaim aloud his opinion. First, the king was found 
guilty by an almost unanimous vote ; . but then, on the 
question of his punishment, there was only a small major- 
ity in favor of death. The voting and speech making lasted 
several days ; for many members insisted on giving their 
reasons for their votes. Every one present shuddered 
when the king's cousin — the former Duke of Orleans, 
who now prided himself upon bearing the name of Philip 
Equality (Philippe Egalite) — stepped boldly forward and 
said, "With a single regard to my duty, I vote for death." 
Another member, Sieyes (sya-yes'), who harshly voted, 
"Death, without explanations! "had an unpleasant reminder 
of this brutal remark when, later on, as ambassador at Ber- 
lin, he invited a member of the royal family to dinner, only 
to receive the curt reply, " No, without explanations ! " 

The last question to be voted on was whether the execu- 
tion should be delayed. It was then that Thomas Paine, 
an American residing in Paris, who was a member of the 
Convention, made a formal protest in the name of his 
country, saying, " The man whom you condemn to death 
is regarded by the people of the United States as their 
best friend, as the founder of liberty ! " But a majority of 
seventy decided against delay, and the Convention ordered 
that Louis be guillotined within twenty-four hours. (The 
guillotine was a machine recently invented by a Frenchman 
for the work of beheading.) 

While the voting was going on, Louis was in another 
room, calmly meditating. When the news was brought to 
him, he gravely said, " For two hours past I have been 



88 MODERN FRANCE 

considering whether, during my whole reign, I have 
voluntarily given any cause of complaint to my subjects, 
and with perfect sincerity I now declare that I deserve no 
reproach at their hands, and that I have never formed a 
wish but for their happiness." 

This statement made no difference ; the cruel sentence 
was read, to which Louis offered no protest. He made no 
moan, but asked permission to take leave of his family, 
and to have the aid of a priest of his own choice to prepare 
for death. Both these favors were granted ; but as Louis 
would not have a French priest who had renounced alle- 
giance to the Pope, and could not have any other French 
clergyman, he had to accept the aid of Abbe Edgeworth, 
an English priest then residing in France. 



-OO^^C 



XVL THE KING'S EXECUTION 

AS the end was so near, Louis XVI. 's last painful in- 
terview with his family took place that selfsame 
evening, under the supervision of the brutal jailers who 
guarded them. For two hours the royal family wept to- 
gether, embracing one another, and speaking their last 
farewells. Louis took his little son on his knee, and so 
impressively told him he must forgive his oppressors, 
that, young as he was, — not quite eight years old, — the 
little fellow remembered and obeyed even under the most 
trying circumstances. 

When the two hours were over and he saw they must 
part, Louis pacified his wife and sister by promising to 
see them again on the morrow, although he knew this was 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1 795) 8g 

the last glimpse he would hav.e, in this world, of the de- 
fenseless beings he loved so dearly, and to whom he had 
always been a good husband, father, and brother, Marie 
Antoinette, who now never resented anything that was 
done to her, indigiiantly exclaimed to her husband's jailers 
as she passed them going out from this heartrending in- 
terview, "You are all rascals!" — a reproof which cut 
deep because it was so true, and for which they never 
forgave her. 

The affecting parting with his family once over, Louis 
XVI.j^who had already written his will, — had nothing to 
do but prepare for the end. He therefore spent most of 
the night in prayer, sleeping only a little while, and that 
mainly because he did not wish to appear tired, or to have 
his courage give out at the end through bodily weakness. 

The next morning, after confessing and receiving the 
last sacrament, Louis begged pardon of his jailer, — with 
whom he had been impatient the day before, — intrusted 
his last messages for his family to the faithful servant who 
had followed him to prison, handed his will to the commis- 
sioners, and himself gave the signal for departure. A 
moment later, his poor wife heard the carriage drive away, 
and then only learned that she was not to see him again 
before he died! All the streets were lined with troops, 
and the city absolutely silent, so no sound save the roll 
of the wheels over the pavement distracted the king's 
thoughts from his final prayers. Realizing that his faith 
was now his sole stay and consolation, he exclaimed, 
" Where should I be now if God had not granted me grace 
to remain true to my religion ? " 

On reaching the scaffold, — erected opposite the Tuile- 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 91 

ries, on the spot where one of the fountains of the Place 
de la Concorde (plas de la coN-cord') now plays, — Louis 
XVI. stepped out of his carriage, and after recommending 
his confessor to the care of the executioners, promptly 
divested himself of his coat. But when they attempted to 
bind his hands, he resisted indignantly, saying: "Tie my 
hands ! No, I will not submit to this. Do your duty, but do 
not attempt to tie me. You shall not do it ! " But the men 
insisted, and the king's confessor now whispered, " Sire, 
this last insult will only provide a fresh point of resem- 
blance between your Majesty and the God who will be 
your recompense ! " Louis then ceased to resist, and re- 
joined with a sigh : " Assuredly, His example alone could 
induce me to submit to such an indignity. Do as you 
please; I will drink the cup to the dregs." 

It was, therefore, with hands fast bound behind him, 
that Louis XVI. stepped forward to theraihng, and, facing 
the assembled crowd, cried in a firm voice : ** I die inno- 
cent of the crimes imputed to me. I forgive the authors 
of my death, and I pray that my blood may not fall upon 
France. ..." But here his speech was interrupted by 
loud rolls of the drums, the authorities fearing lest a reac- 
tion should take place in his favor even at the last minute. 

A moment later, just after Abbe Edgevvorth is reported 
to have pronounced the famous words, " Son of St. Louis, 
ascend" to Heaven ! " the executioner exhibited the king's 
head to the multitude, who gazed in awestruck silence at 
the countenance of the last of the unbroken line of thirty- 
three Capetian kings who had, so far, ruled France. 

Then people crowded around the scaffold, to dip their 
handkerchiefs in the king's blood, some of these relics 



92 



MODERN FRANCE 



being still piously preserved. But, instead of resting from 
the first in St. Denis, — where a monument was erected 
later over what could still be found of his remains, — ■ 
Louis XVI. was buried like other guillotine victims, in the 
spot where now rises a beautiful chapel, the Chapelle 
Expiatoire (sha-pel' ex-pya-twar'), erected in atonement of 
this sinful execution of an innocent king, and of many other 
victims. Louis, the best but weakest of the Bourbons, 
died thus at thirty-eight, after a reign of eighteen and a 
half years ; but although his foes had clamored for his 
death, saying, ** Only the dead never come back to trouble 
us," he was to prove far more formidable to them dead 
than alive, for since the French had made a martyr of him, 
all Europe rose up to avenge his death. 



-<K3>»{< 



XVIL STORY OF CHARLOTTE CORDAY 

THE TYRANT," as the Revolutionists styled poor 
Louis XVL, was no more, and the news of his 
death reached the ears of his stricken family only by means 
of news-vender's cries. Thus also it became known to his 
eldest brother, — one of the emigres, — who immediately 
proclaimed the captive Dauphin, Louis XVH., assuming 
himself the title of Regent — because Monarchists, of 
course, did not accept the decree of the Convention that 
there should be no more royalty in France. 

The new Republic, meantime, had its hands very full, 
for all Europe was rising up against it, the Revolution 
being everywhere considered as a menace to law and order. 
The French Royalists, too, were ready to rebel, those in the 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792- 1795) 93 

northwest being particularly rabid, as they were anxious to 
avenge both their king and the Church. They therefore 
organized what is known in history as the Insurrection of 
the Vendee (vaN-da'), an uprising in and near Brittany, 
headed by very brave leaders. Composed of a few nobles, 
and of many peasants, — who were armed at first merely 
with scythes and pitchforks, and hooted hke screech owls 
to signal to each other, — this royalist force carried on a 
guerrilla warfare in that wild section of the country for 
about three years. These Vendee royalists or Chouans 
(shoo'anz, meaning ''screech owls"), many thousands of 
whom gave their lives for their cause, were also known 
as the Whites, because they rallied around the royal 
standard, while their opponents, the Republicans, were 
known as the Blues, and proudly bore the flag which 
France now uses. 

With so many enemies without and within, immediate 
measures of defense were imperative, so, while Carnot 
(car-no') began to raise armies, Danton organized a Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal, before which " suspects " were brought 
and summarily judged. There was no appeal from its 
decrees, and as it had scores of branches in different parts 
of the country, no enemy of the Republic could hope to 
escape. Finally, the Convention intrusted all public au- 
thority to a secret Committee of Public Safety, consisting of 
nine able and active members. One of them, Danton, had 
said, " Let the reign of terror .be the order of the day ! " 
and this bloodthirsty remark furnishes the name for the 
darkest epoch of French history, the Reign of Terror, ex- 
tending from June 2, 1793, to July 17, 1794, fourteen 
dreadful months ! 



94 



MODERN FRANCE 



Among those who were not satisfied with the way things 
were being conducted, was General Dumouriez, — the victor 
of Valmy and Jemappes, — who wished to restore mon- 
archy in France, although in favor of a son of the Duke of 
Orleans, and not of poor little Louis XVII. When the 
Convention began to suspect him, after his defeat at Neer- 
winden (nar'vin-den), four commissioners were sent to his 
camp to question and, if need be, arrest him. Dumouriez, 
on hearing what these men had to say, exclaimed, " The 
tigers want my head, but I won't give it to them ! " Then 
he turned the tables by having the commissioners summa- 
rily handed over to the Austrians, to be detained in their 
camp as hostages, and, after vainly trying to induce his 
army to follow him, he and his royal protege (later King 
Louis PhiHppe) went over to the enemy, too. 

During April and May, 1793, one reads of nothing but 
accusations, arrests, and riots, for the whole country was 
in a terrible ferment, the passions in Paris, in particular, 
being constantly at the boiling point. Then, early in June, 
thirty-four members of the Convention — known as the 
Girond'ists, because they came mostly from the Gironde — 
were proscribed by order of the two leaders now most influ- 
ential, Marat and Robespierre (ro-bes-pyar'), their main 
crime being heroic attempts to restrain the bloodthirsty 
element in the country. Some of the Girondists managed 
to escape, and fled to Lyons, Caen (caN), and elsewhere ; 
but more than a score were arrested and imprisoned to 
await trial. 

The Girondists who escaped began to raise armies, using 
all their eloquence against their foes. Their denunciations 
so fired Charlotte Corday', — a girl of twenty-five, living at 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1 795) 



95 



Caen, — that, pretending a voyage to England, she took 
leave of her family and betook herself to Paris. There, 
she intended to rid her beloved country of the monster 
whom she deemed the author of all its woes. So, on the 
pretext that she had information of importance to convey, 
she obtained admission to Marat's presence, although 
he was then suffering from a skin disease which caused 
such intense irritation 
that he was in the habit 
of spending most of his 
time in a medicated bath. 
To enable him to write 
for his paper. The Peo- 
ple s Friend, and also 
to receive his many 
visitors, Marat lay in a 
covered bathtub, from 
which only his head and 
right arm emerged. 

When the beautiful 
young woman was ush- 
ered in, Marat invited 
her to sit down beside 
him, and began eagerly painang by Muiier. 
inquiring the names of Charlotte Corday. 

the deputies who had taken refuge at Caen. He had just 
written down the last, and was saying in a tone of grim 
satisfaction that their heads would soon fall, when Charlotte 
Corday, drawing a dagger from the folds of her kerchief, 
drove it deep into his heart ! A moment later the dauntless 
girl, seized by Marat's servants, was dragged off to prison. 




96 MODERN FRANCE 

but at her trial she calmly testified: "I wished to put a 
stop to the civil war, and to offer up my life for the good 
of my country. I have no accomplices." 

Tried and found guilty, Charlotte Corday was condemned 
to be guillotined, but faced death with great fortitude, con- 
vinced that her deed had been fully as praiseworthy as 
that of Ja'el or Judith.^ And, although at that time people 
so admired Marat that they solemnly buried him in the 
Pantheon, like a great patriot, they changed their minds 
about him even before the Revolution was over, and re- 
moved his remains to another, less conspicuous resting 
place. 

Meanwhile, the Girondists had stirred up rebellions in 
several parts of France, which were later put down with 
the utmost cruelty. At Lyons, as the guillotine could not 
work fast enough, the rebels were bunched together and 
mowed down in crowds with grapeshot. As for the city, 
it was almost destroyed, and this inscription was placed on 
a mound of ruins, "Lyons made war against Liberty, — • 
Lyons is no more ! " Such an example, as you may 
well imagine, struck terror into the hearts of all, and the 
cry now became, " Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, or 
Death ! " 

Toulon (too-loN^), which the rebels had turned over to 
the English, was closely besieged by Republican troops. 
It was at this siege that Bonaparte — then a young lieu- 
tenant of artillery — pointed out the spot from which bat- 
teries could best command the enemy's position, thereby 
securing for the Republic a decisive advantage in the 
struggle for this important city. Bonaparte's unusual abili- 

^ Guerber's Story of the Chosen People, pp. 92, 203. 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1 795) 97 

ties were then and there seen and recognized by Barras 
(ba-ra'), a member of the Convention, who, as you will see, 
was later to give this young officer a chance to distinguish 
himself as general in the French army. 

Meantime, the Convention had been at work upon a 
new constitution for France, **the Constitution of 1793," 
which, though finished and adopted in that year, was never 
put into effect ; instead, the Convention and its Committee 
of Public Safety continued to rule. 

XVIII. THE QUEEN PARTED FROM HER 

CHILDREN 

YOU may have been wondering what had become of 
poor Marie Antoinette, whom we left in prison, just 
after learning that her husband was dead. This fatal 
news plunged the queen into such a state of stony grief, 
that only the sudden and severe illness of her little fourteen- 
year-old daughter saved her from becoming insane. This 
poor girl — "the little Madam" as some of the more com- 
passionate guards sometimes ventured to call her, although 
the majority used only the rough "citizeness" of the 
times — did not die, however, but recovered to help her 
aunt amuse poor little Louis. They two played with him, 
gave him his lessons, waited upon Marie Antoinette, and 
kept their rooms tidy, for they now had no attendant to 
undertake that care. 

Marie Antoinette never doubted at this time that help 
would soon be forthcoming, and that her son would yet 
reign "over France, for, since his father was dead, she natu- 



98 MODERN FRANCE 

rally considered him king. The Royalists were, meantime, 
most anxious to secure possession of their monarch, and, 
knowing the mob's ferocity and hatred, longed to rescue 
the queen also. They therefore devised many plots to 
rescue the royal captives, but were always baffled. Besides, 
the queen did not wish to escape without her children, or 
to let them go without her, for she now felt it unsafe to 
trust any one. 

Mainly because Marie Antoinette viewed her son as the 
King of France, the Convention decreed that he should be 
taken from her, and intrusted to the care of a. "tutor" of 
their own selection. One night, therefore, after Marie 
Antoinette had tenderly put her little son to bed, officers 
suddenly appeared, demanding his custody. The mother, 
frantic with grief, stood before the bed, defending him 
fiercely, and it was only when the officers seriously 
threatened to kill both her children, that she finally 
yielded in despair. 

The good aunt and the poor little sister had to dress the 
weeping and frightened child. Then Marie Antoinette, 
herself, handed him over to the officers, after bidding the 
poor little fellow : " Always remember, my son, a mother 
who loves you. Be good, gentle, and true ! " He was 
never to see his beloved mother again. 

Louis was at once committed to the care of a rough 
shoemaker named Simon, who, though well paid, resented 
being locked up in the Temple to watch him, and who 
sometimes vented his spite upon this innocent lad by ill- 
treating him. Sworn at, beaten, and kicked because he 
cried for his mother, often roused by some rough order 
when he fell asleep, badgered even when trying to say his 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 



99 



prayers, and forced to learn oaths and ribald songs in 
self-defense, the poor little boy suffered actual martyrdom. 
He was only eight years old, remember, and had hitherto 
been treated with the utmost love and consideration. His 
poor mother had foreseen that he might fall into very brutal 
hands, but fortunately she never knew just how much he 
had to suffer, nor could she even imagine that Simon and 
his friends would 
force a child to 
drink bad liquor 
— as they some- 
times did, know- 
ing it was only 
when drunk that . 
he could be made 
to sing the coarse 
songs they de- 
lighted to hear. 

Throughout all painting by Scherrer. 

The Dauphin in Prison. 

this torture the 

little prince proved patient, gentle, and obedient, pathetic- 
ally trying by small attentions and services to placate 
Simon and his coarse wife. He so constantly remembered 
his father's last words that once when his jailer, after 
taunting him to the utmost, curiously asked what he would 
do if he were free and king, the boy promptly and firmly 
replied, " I would forgive you ! " Taken up daily to the 
top of the tower for air, Louis always paused at his 
mother's door, pleading vainly with eloquent glances — for 
he no longer dared ask — to be allowed to see her. Two 
or three times, through cracks in the wall, the poor mother 




100 MODERN FRANCE 

had a glimpse of this idolized son, before the officers again 
appeared in the middle of the night, this time to lead her 
away ! 

There was no resistance now. After dressing herself 
quietly in the presence of the men who refused to leave 
her room even for a minute, Marie Antoinette bade her 
daughter and sister-in-law farewell, imploring the latter to 
watch over the children in her stead. The queen was 
then led to another prison (the Conciergerie), where she was 
conducted along a narrow corridor, so low and dark that 
we are told she struck her head a terrible blow. One 
officer, a trifle more humane than the rest, inquiring 
whether she had hurt herself, then received the broken- 
hearted reply, "Oh, no, nothing can hurt me any more! " 
From the end of July until the middle of October, Marie 
Antoinette was kept here in a cell, so damp and unwhole- 
some that her clothes rotted, and that her one pair of 
shoes was always covered with mildew. Besides, lest any 
attempt should be made to rescue her, she was constantly 
guarded. Toward the last three men stayed in her cell 
night and day, drinking, smoking, swearing, playing cards, 
and constantly prying upon her every motion. With no 
tidings of her children, no means of occupation, and only 
one small book of devotion, the poor queen, who was al- 
ways polite and gentle, and who never uttered a word of 
complaint, suffered, and was still. 

While she was there, one attempt was made to rescue 
her, but as it was discovered, it only served to redouble 
the watchfulness and cruelty of her guards, thus making 
her situation worse instead of better. 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) loi 

XIX. DEATH OF MARIE ANTOINETTE 

IN the middle of October, the queen — again without 
warning — was summoned before the Tribunal to be 
tried, no time being given to her to prepare any defense, 
while her enemies had craftily made all their plans to con- 
demn her. For instance, a commission had even been sent 
to the Temple, to question the prince and both princesses. 

Poor little Louis, dazed already by Simon's rough treat- 
ment, said "yes" to anything these men chose to ask. 
Then his sister was summoned, and entered the room, 
terrified at being alone with men for the first time in her 
young life ; but, perceiving suddenly her small brother, 
she darted forward rapturously to embrace him, only to be 
cruelly prevented from doing so by the officers, who now 
proceeded to question her, too. Six years older, and 
therefore wiser and braver than the boy. Madam Royal 
gave them no satisfaction, although they cross-questioned 
her a long, long time, and did all they could to frighten 
her. But, while they did succeed in wringing tears from 
this little heroine, they could not obtain one word which 
could ever be used against her beloved mother. Next the 
aunt was called, whom these coarse men could not brow- 
beat as they had the children, and from whom, also, they 
could not wring anything save expressions of love and 
deep admiration for her poor brother's widow. 

At her trial, Marie Antoinette was accused of meddling 
with the government, of giving her husband bad advice, 
and of considering her son king, although the Republic 
had been proclaimed ! She was also asked to reveal what 
she knew in regard to certain so-called plots against the 



102 MODERN FRANCE 

nation, giving the names of those who had taken part in 
them ; but Marie Antoinette was no craven telltale, and all 
her judges obtained was the noble answer: " I shall never 
inform against my subjects. I have seen all, understood 
all, and forgotten all ! " Then the old story of the Diamond 
Necklace, and all the other slanders spread by her enemies, 
were again brought to light, and, as if she could not be 
spared a single pang, the poor queen was told that her 
little son had accused her of trying to corrupt his morals. 

To all these charges Marie Antoinette answered briefly 
or not at all, and, when urged to reply to the last, indig- 
nantly exclaimed, '' I appeal to every mother here present, 
whether such a thing is possible ! " This bold retort won 
such applause, even from hostile hearers, that the judges, 
fearing lest she should win the sympathy of the mob at 
the last minute, went on hurriedly with the business on 
hand. While thus questioned and badgered, hour after 
hour, she remained cool and dignified, saying pathetically 
toward the last : " I was a queen and you took away my 
crown ; a wife, and you killed my husband ; a mother, and 
you robbed me of my children. My blood alone remains ; 
take it, but do not make me suffer too long ! " You see, 
she knew it was her life that these wretches were deter- 
mined to have, so she was not surprised when the verdict 
" guilty " was given, and she was condemned to die within 
twenty-four hours. 

Taken back to her unwholesome prison, Marie Antoi- 
nette spent the night writing a touching letter to Madam 
EHzabeth, imploring her to watch over the orphaned chil- 
dren. This letter, in which the queen forgave all her ene- 
mies, and begged her children never to try to avenge her, 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 



103 



was not delivered to Madam Elizabeth, but was found 
among the cruel judge's papers when he was guillotined 
in his turn. It 
is now one of the 
precious historic 
relics of the 
country, and a 
copy of it is en- 
graved in marble 
in the Chapelle 
Expiatoire. 
After her sen- 
tence had again 
been read to her 
in prison, Marie 
Antoinette made 
her last toilet, — 
still watched by 
her jailers, — 
gently thanking 
the young actress 
who gave her a 
clean white dress 
to wear. Next 
the chief execu- 
tioner entered, cut off her beautiful hair, which he burned, 
and bound her hands behind her so tightly that the cords 
actually cut into her tender flesh ! 

Louis XVI. had been taken to the scaffold in a carriage, 
and had been allowed the services of an orthodox priest ; 
Marie Antoinette had to ride in a tumbrel, or cart, where 




Painting :y Flanieng. 

Marie Antoinette going to Execution. 



I04 MODERN FRANCE 

she sat on a rude board beside a Constitutional priest 
(one who had taken the civic oath — see page 67), the only 
kind of clergy now allowed to attend prisoners. Knowing 
the feelings of the people, Marie Antoinette feared they 
might attack and tear her to pieces before she could reach 
the scaffold. The priest, seeing this, tried to reassure her, 
and then, wishing to improve the occasion, began, 
''Madame, by your death you will expiate . . ." 

" Yes," she interrupted quickly, ** errors, but not crimes ! " 
She was right: she had made mistakes, but only those natu- 
ral to youth and ignorance, and had never committed any 
of the willful crimes which her foes laid to her charge. 

Amid silence at first, and then a roar of insults, Marie 
Antoinette passed for the last time through the streets of 
Paris, and on reaching the scaffold sprang up the steps so 
eagerly that she dropped one of her slippers, which is now 
preserved as a sacred relic. On her way to the plank to 
which she was to be bound, she accidentally stepped on 
the executioner's foot, and apologized immediately, for her 
sufferings had made her even more tender of the feelings 
of others. As soon as the cruel knife had fallen, the exe- 
cutioner held the head of this victim so that all could gaze 
upon her features, — as he had done with that of her hus- 
band nine months before, — and then the remains of this 
Queen of France were buried by the state at a cost of less 
than two dollars. 

The very day and hour that Marie Antoinette was thus 
released from a life which had been full of bliss and of 
sorrow, of grandeur and of bitter humihation, the French 
won the battle of Wattignies (va-teen-yee', 1793), and the 
nation thus claimed it had two causes for great rejoicing ! 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1 795) 



105 



The execution of Marie Antoinette was closely followed 
by that of twenty-one patriotic Girondists, who, on their 
way to the scaffold, and while awaiting their turn, heroic- 
ally sang the " Marseillaise," to prove their devotion to 
their native country. Only one of their number dared not 
face the ordeal of the guillotine; but although he suc- 
ceeded in committing suicide, his inanimate corpse was 




l^aiiding Oy vilottj 



Girondists on their way to ttie Scaffold. 

nevertheless borne to the scaffold to be beheaded with 
the rest. The strong chorus of a score of manly voices 
dwindled gradually as one head after another fell beneath 
the knife, but even the last Girondist kept up the strain, 
undaunted to the final minute. 

The Duke of Orleans — who, you remember, had voted 
for his cousin's death, and who had since been equally 
execrated by both parties — was one of the next victims. 
He was sent to the scaffold with a criminal, who cried. 



io6 



MODERN FRANCE 



" I hardly regret life, since he who has ruined my country 
receives the just punishment of his crimes, but what morti- 
fies me is to be obliged to die on the same scaffold with 
him!" 

Four days after this execution, Madame Roland (ro-laN'), 
— the clever wife of the president of the Convention, — 

who for two years past 
had entertained the Gi- 
rondists at her house, 
was also led to the scaf- 
fold. She had been an 
enthusiastic advocate of 
the Revolution at first, 
expecting that reforms 
would be effected in an 
orderly manner, as did 
the ardent patriots who 
formed her circle of liter- 
ary and political friends. 
During her imprison- 
ment, Madame Roland 
spent her time writing 
her Memoirs, which are 
considered a graphic ac- 
count of those times. Upon being condemned to die, 
she said to the judge who pronounced her sentence : " I 
thank you for having found me worthy to share the lot of 
the great men you have murdered. I shall try to display 
the same courage on the scaffold." To one of her former 
guests, brought to the scaffold with her, she quickly 
whispered, " Mount first ; you would not have nerve enough 




PaintinQ by Royer. 

Execution of Madame Roland 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1 795) 107 

to see me die." And when about to lay her own head 
under the knife, she is reported to have exclaimed, gazing 
at a statue of Liberty recently erected near there, " O 
Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name ! " Her 
husband, who managed to escape his pursuers and hide, 
was so maddened by grief at the news of her execution, 
that he committed suicide, protesting that he " would no 
longer remain in a world defiled by such crimes." 



3>OiC 



XX. MANY EXECUTIONS 

THE end of the year 1793 was marked by a new change ; 
namely, the formal abolishment of Christian religion 
in some parts of France, and the introduction of the " Wor- 
ship of Reason." Many of the Revolutionists pretended 
not to believe in God, or in any life to come, so these men — 
Hebert (a-bar') and his followers — wrote over the gates of 
cemeteries, *' Death is an eternal sleep," and decreed that 
the Church of Notre Dame should henceforth be used as 
the Temple of Reason. Their new worship was introduced 
by a pageant, an actress of the lowest type being dressed 
up like Minerva, placed on a golden chariot, and dragged 
into the building sanctified by many centuries of real 
devotion. There, all bowed down before the new goddess, 
while young girls strewed flowers before her, singing 
hymns. The whole ceremony was a ghastly parody of the 
religious ceremonies in the past, and shocked all good. 
Christians, Catholic or Protestant, although no one dared 
express all one felt in such dangerous times. 

Meantime, the siege of Toulon had been going on ; and 



io8 MODERN FRANCE 

before the year closed, the Republic, thanks to Bonaparte, 
recovered possession of that port. One day during that 
siege Bonaparte called for a man to write under his dicta- 
tion. Junot (zhii-no'), a young officer, volunteered his 
services, and just as he finished writing, a cannon ball, 
striking near by, scattered dirt over his paper. Without 
changing color, Junot laughingly exclaimed, "Good! I 
shall not need any sand ! " (In those days, sand was 
shaken over one's paper, to absorb extra ink, for blotters 
were not yet invented.) His coolness on this occasion not 
only attracted Bonaparte's attention, but won his genuine 
admiration. And Junot fully returned that feeling, for he 
said a little later, *' General Bonapartq is one of those men 
of whom nature forms but few, and casts them on our 
globe perhaps once in a century ! " 

The new year 1794 was ushered in by a decree from the 
Convention, ordering the people to celebrate the anni- 
versary of Louis XVI. 's death as a national festival. Then, 
too, were destroyed the remains of the former kings of 
France, hitherto so carefully preserved at St. Denis. In 
carrying out this destruction, many famous historic tombs, 
priceless works of art, were badly damaged, and valuable 
relics were stolen or lost. Still, the remains were not so 
radically disposed of as some supposed, for it is said con- 
siderable royal dust was later discovered in these very 
tombs, which have since been carefully restored. 

The Reign of Terror had spread all over France because 
members of the Convention were sent out, clothed with 
absolute power, to take charge of affairs in the various 
provinces. Carrier (car-ya'), for instance, the member who 
had control in the Vendee, proved a most cruel man, and 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 109 

about this time began executing all captured rebels — rnen, 
women, and children. As the guillotine could not work 
fast enough, he embarked hosts of captives in rotten 
ships, which he ordered scuttled in the middle of the river 
Loire (Iwar). After a while, however, even old ships seemed 
too precious to sacrifice, so the prisoners, tied in cruel 
derision in pairs, — this was called a RepubHcan marriage, 
— were thrown overboard, to sink after a few vain efforts 
to keep afloat. Thus the Loire kept rolling corpses down 
to the sea for several months, as, all told, in these drown- 
ings {Noyades), Carrier disposed of at least fifteen thou- 
sand victims. 

Indeed, no one was safe in those days; those who were 
up to-day were likely to be down to-morrow. Desmoulins, 
the man who started the Revolution by his speech in the 
Palais Royal garden (see page 57), after being a popular 
favorite for some time, was arrested and sent to the guillo- 
tine, heartbroken at the idea of being separated from his 
beautiful young wife. And, because this unfortunate lady 
haunted the neighborhood of his prison, in quest of news, 
she, too, was arrested and executed, a fortnight later. 

Danton, whose fiery speeches excited the people to in- 
vade the Tuileries and massacre the Swiss guards (see page 
80), and who argued for the execution of the king, was 
further noted as president of the Jac'obin Club, and founder 
of the Revolutionary Tribunal. Although he now began to 
advocate moderation, his voice was no longer heard ; he 
who had once been leader, having incurred the jealousy of 
Robespierre, was arrested with Desmoulins and brought 
to trial, too. When asked, as usual, his name and abode, 
Danton proudly stated : " My name } It is Danton, a 



no MODERN FRANCE 

name tolerably well known in the Revolution. My dwell- 
ing? It will soon be nowhere, but my name will live in 
the Pantheon of history!" During his trial he stated: 
" Just one year ago, I was instrumental in instituting the 
Revolutionary Tribunal; I beg God and men to forgive me." 
The bloody tribunal which he founded now sentenced him 
to death (1794), and his last words to the executioner 
were, " Show the people my head ; it is worth seeing ! " 
Not only were politicians executed, but harmless poets 
like Chenier (sha-nya'), who on the scaffold struck his 
brow, exclaiming, " I have done naught as yet for pos- 
terity, and still, there was something there ! " Scientists 
fared no better. Condorcet (k6N-dor-se'), the mathema- 
tician, was tracked from one hiding place to another, and 
would have been guillotined, had not sudden death by 
apoplexy, or poison, saved him from that fate. The 
" Founder of Modern Chemistry," Lavoisier (la-vwa-zya'), 
begged for time to leave the world some record of an 
' invaluable discovery he had made, only to be harshly in- 
formed by his grossly ignorant judges that "the Republic 
has no need of scientists ! " Thus, as another writer 
remarked, " It took them only a moment to decree the fall 
of that head, and still a hundred years perchance will not 
sufifice to produce another like it ! " Even the philan- 
thropic physician. Dr. Guillotin (ge-yo-taN^) — a friend 
of Franklin, who had persuaded Louis XVI. that it 
would be more humane to execute criminals by a mechan- 
ical device than to rely solely as heretofore upon an exe- 
cutioner's ax and uncertain aim — proved another of the 
innocent victims of the guillotine, which, although it owes 
its name to him, was invented by some one else. 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1795) m 

XXI. DEATH OF MADAM ELIZABETH 

EVER since Marie Antoinette had bidden her daughter 
and sister-in-law farewell, they had remained in the 
Teaiple, where three times a day guards entered their 
room to bring food, and occasionally appeared to search 
their rooms for traces of conspiracy, confiscating every- 
thing which seemed suspicious. But Madam Ehzabeth 
was such a good and sensible woman, that she comforted 
her niece and trained her to take the utmost care of the 
two small rooms they occupied, of her clothes, and of her 
health. Every day the girl had to exercise during a cer- 
tain length of time, walking up and down the room, for 
since the king's death they had never been down in the 
gardens, and since the queen's removal had even been 
denied air and exercise on the tower platform. 

From time to time the princesses gleaned scanty news 
of poor little Louis, but what they heard so wrung their 
hearts that, to divert themselves, they read their few 
books of devotion over and over, and knitted and sewed 
diligently, ripping and reripping for the sake of an occupa- 
tion, as new materials were denied them. Madam 
Elizabeth suspected that Marie Antoinette had been 
executed ; still, as no positive tidings reached her, she 
would not sadden her little niece by imparting to her 
such ghastly fears. 

One day, with just as little warning as when they came 
for the queen, men arrived to take Elizabeth away, vouch- 
safing no answers to her questions. The little princess 
said afterwards that her aunt urged her to have courage 
and firmness, to hope always in God, to practice the good 



112 MODERN FRANCE 

principles of religion given her by her parents, and not to 
fail in the last instructions given her by her father and 
mother. Madam Elizabeth was immediately summoned 
before the court, where the worst real charges brought were 
that she had written to her emigre brothers, and that she 
had begged to remain with the king and queen in prison ! 
Besides, her judges accused her of all manner of fancied 
base deeds, declaring that they felt sure she must be plot- 
ting mischief, as they could find no trace of her diamonds ! 
She answered patiently at first ; then, seeing all efforts were 
wasted, she exclaimed: "All these questions are, however, 
useless ; you want my life. I have offered up to God the 
sacrifice of my being, and I am prepared to die, happy at 
the thought of rejoining my revered brother and his wife, 
whom I loved so dearly when on earth." 

As loyalty to the late king was now high treason, this 
blameless princess was sentenced to the guillotine, with 
ten noble ladies and fourteen gentlemen, the judges grimly 
calling these people " her court," for they frequently in- 
dulged in ghastly jokes of that order. Having long been 
prepared to die. Madam Elizabeth heard her sentence 
calmly, and spent her few remaining hours comforting 
and strengthening those who were to be executed with 
her. To a mother, who wailed that while she felt resigned 
to die herself, she could not bear the thought of death for 
her son, aged twenty, Elizabeth said : " You love your son, 
and yet you do not wish him to accompany you ! You are 
going yourself to the joys of heaven, and you want him to 
stay upon earth, where all is now torture and sorrow ! " 
In the tumbrel on the way to the scaffold, she cheered her 
unfortunate companions by saying, " You have shown 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1 795) 113 

your compatriots how to live rightly ; show them now how 
men die when their consciences are at peace ! " 

Hoping to shake the courage of the princess, the execu- 
tioners decreed that she should be last, but Madam Eliza- 
beth remained perfectly calm, embracing each of the 
women \ictims as they went up the steps to the guillotine, 
and allowing each of the- men to take leave of her by kiss- 
ing her hand, as was then customary in polite society. To 
the last victim she said firmly, " Courage and faith in 
God's mercy ! " and, when called herself, submitted pa- 
tiently to the last indignities, exclaiming only when the 
executioner roughly removed her kerchief, " In the name 
of your mother, sir, cover me ! " Madam Elizabeth was 
executed in May, 1794, at the age of thirty, and thus little 
Louis and his sister were the only royal captives left in the 
gloomy prison, where the " Orphans of the Temple " were, 
however, never allowed to see each other again. 



3»4C 



XXII. DEATH OF ROBESPIERRE 

YOU have seen how, since the Republic had been de- 
clared, even worship had undergone sundry changes. 
Still, the Goddess of Reason did not long maintain her 
fantastic sway, and when Hebert, the author of this cult, 
ceased to be popular, he, too, was guillotined, after being 
jeered at by the people for the cowardice he displayed. 
Robespierre, who was now the controlling spirit of the 
Revolution, carried through a decree that the people should 
henceforth worship "the Supreme Being." 

On June 8, therefore, the Parisians assembled on the 



114 



MODERN FRANCE 



Field of Mars, to see Robespierre in a sky-blue coat, bear- 
ing flowers, fruit, and grain in his hand, officiate as 
high priest, after announcing, " To-day let us enjoy our- 
selves, to-morrow begin afresh to fight the enemies of the 
Republic." His main weapon for fighting French foes was 
the guillotine, which, for the first time in many months, 
stood idle for a whole day, shrouded in festive purple 
hangings ! But it was by means of the " Holy Guillotine " 
— as it was sacrilegiously called — that the Republic now 
coined money, the property of all victims being confiscated 
for the benefit of the state. The " Supreme Being " cere- 
monies, arranged by the painter David, proved very stagy, 
for they concluded with the public burning of two straw 
figures, " Atheism " and " Egotism," out of which, at a sig- 
nal from Robespierre, arose " Wisdom," badly blackened 
by the smoke ! 

Robespierre, " more despotic than any Bourbon," proved 
the most bloodthirsty of all the Revolutionary leaders, for 
he made such changes in the Revolutionary Tribunal that 
nearly every prisoner tried was quickly condemned to 
death. Still, many stories are told of brave and touching 
deeds, of heroic self-sacrifice, and of narrow escapes, which 
you will read in more detailed books. One aged couple 
so touched even a Revolutionary judge, that he tried hard 
to save them from the knife by distorting facts. But the 
old gentleman, too honorable to tell a lie or to permit one 
to be told in his behalf, frustrated this charitable impulse 
by proclaiming : " I thank you for the efforts you have 
made to save us, but we could never redeem our lives by a 
falsehood. My wife and I prefer to die. We have grown 
old together without having ever told a falsehood, and we 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 115 

will not lie now, not even to save a remnant of life. Do 
your duty as we are doing ours. We will not blame you, 
but the law only, for our death." 

Many of the men showed the white feather at the last 
moment, but among all the delicate, aristocratic women 
who were executed, not one failed to maintain her womanly 
dignity to the very end. In fact, the only woman who 
made a great fuss — crying, screaming, and falling at the 
feet of judges and executioners — was Madame du Barry, 
the last favorite of Louis XV. She had been one of the 
fir^ to escape from France, but had returned in disguise 
to recover jewels and plate which she had buried in her 
garden. In her hasty flight from France, it seems that 
this lady had cruelly deserted a colored dwarf slave, of 
whom she had made such a pet that he figures in most 
of the paintings representing this wicked yet beautiful 
woman. The dwarf so deeply resented this treatment 
that, on recognizing his former mistress in her disguise, he 
went and denounced her to the Revolutionary Tribunal, 
revenging himself by thus compassing her death. 

The government by the Convention and the Committee 
of Public Safety had one good result : the French armies 
were made strong enough to drive back the allied invaders, 
and even to carry the war beyond the borders of France. 
But about one month after winning the battle of Fleurus 
(fle-riis', 1794), the Convention, feeling it could no longer 
stand Robespierre's tyranny, had him arrested with his 
brother and principal helpers. In the Convention Robes- 
pierre argued and defended himself, until he fairly choked, 
when a man in the background cried out tauntingly, ** It 
is the blood of Danton which chokes you ! " This tragic 



ii6 



MODERN FRANCE 



reminder of the way in which Robespierre had abandoned 
a former ally, decided his fate. Robespierre and his com- 
panions, who had condemned so many to die, showed far 
less courage than many of their victims, and several tried 
to commit suicide in various ways ; indeed, Robespierre's 
lower jaw being fractured by a pistol shot, he had to appear 
before his judges on a stretcher. 




Drawing by Joiiaiinul. 



The Arrest of Robespierre. 



After a very brief trial, Robespierre and his adherents 
were condemned to the guillotine, where Robespierre died 
shrieking, owing to the pain in his broken jaw when the 
bandage was removed (July, 1794). When he was exe- 
cuted, the spectators clapped loudly, for they were glad 
to be rid of him. There were always many people present 
at executions ; indeed, throughout the Revolution, executions 
served as an entertainment, attracting large audiences, the 
front seats being always claimed by the lowest class of 
women, known as " the Knitters " {les tricoteuses) because 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (i 792-1 795) 117 

they knitted industriously while eagerly watching all that 
was going on. Over Robespierre's grave was found one 
day the following inscription, expressing a great deal of 
truth: — 

" Lament not, that I lie in my last bed, 
For, were I living, friend, you would be dead." 

The death of Robespierre marks the end of the Reign 
of Terror in Paris, during which nearly 3000 persons had 
been guillotined. Still, the massacres could not immedi- 
ately be stopped, so in the course of the next two days the 
guillotine worked as hard as ever. But, after that, prisons 
were opened, j 0,000 captives set free, fewer arrests made, 
and soon no sentences of death were issued save in case of 
real criminals, — such, for instance, as Carrier, of " drown- 
ing " fame (see page 108); Simon, the tutor of the poor 
little Dauphin ; and the cruel judge of the Revolutionary 
Tribunal (Fouquier-Tinville). 

Among the persons who would have died within the 
next few days, had Robespierre lived, was Josephine, who 
was to be the first Empress of France. 

The clubs where Marat, Danton, Robespierre, and others 
had excited each other to such frightful deeds of violence, 
were ordered closed, and "the Gilded Youth," a political 
party in favor of greater moderation, now began to make 
its presence felt. Still, the Red Reign of Terror, so for- 
tunately ended, was offset by a White Reign of Terror 
in the southeast, where Royalists took their revenge by 
murdering many Revolutionists, these massacres continu- 
ing more than six months before they could be effectually 
checked. 




(ii8) 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 119 

XXIII. END OF THE REVOLUTION 

YEARS of trouble and horror had passed, but the year 
1795 was fortunately to bring brighter days to France. 
At its very beginning, the Republican armies entered Hol- 
land^ where, undaunted by the extreme cold, French sol- 
diers made themselves masters of the country, and of its 
fleets, held fast by the ice in the Zuider Zee. Thus, you 
see, a mere detachment of cavalry could master the daunt- 
less Dutch navy ! ■ The French were so anxious to have 
every one follow the example they were giving to the 
world, that they presently induced the Dutch to send 
away their stadtholder, and to organize into a new state, 
known during its brief existence as the Bata'vian Republic. 

The triumphs of the French Republican army, whose 
glorious record was eight pitched battles, 116 towns and 
230 forts taken, 90,000 prisoners, and 3800 cannon cap- 
tured, so awed all Europe, that Prussia and Spain made 
peace with France. Proud as the nation was of these suc- 
cesses, lack of bread still caused constant rioting, and once 
a mob even burst into the hall where the Convention was 
sitting, to clamor for food. In the confusion, one rioter 
aimed a shot at the president, and killed the deputy who 
bravely flung himself in the way. When the head of this 
hero was brought before the president, on a pike, a few 
moments later, he gravely and respectfully saluted it, say- 
ing boldly it was "the head of a brave man," whereupon 
the fickle mob, suddenly agreeing with him, honored their 
own victim with a grand funeral. 

Before the Convention closed (Oct. 26, 1795), a new 
government was provided, which was to consist of a 



I20 MODERN FRANCE 

Council of Ancients and one of Five Hundred, together 
with a board of five Directors. As you have seen, the 
Convention had issued some very wise and some very 
fooHsh and wicked decrees during the three years and 
more of its sway. Its attitude toward religion had changed 
from time to time. In the end it decreed religious liberty, 
but provided that the government should not pay the ex- 
penses of any form of worship. One of its last acts was 
to provide that the square where the guillotine had stood 
(pages 90, 91) should henceforth be known as Place de la 
Concorde (or Harmony Square) ! 

Just before the Convention disbanded, violent riots again 
broke out, and it became evident that the palace of the 
Tuileries — now used for the government of the Republic 
— would again be stormed. Barras, whose voice was now 
heard most often, suggested armed resistance, and when 
the objection was made that most of the officers sympa- 
thized too keenly with the Parisians to be trusted, he 
exclaimed, " I have the very man you want ; he is a little 
Corsican officer who will not stand upon ceremony." This 
*' little Corsican officer " was Napoleon Bonaparte, who, 
since the siege of Toulon, had been both idle and unhappy, 
and so poor that he had to pawn his watch to secure six- 
cent dinners. When asked at the present juncture whether 
he felt competent to defend the Convention, Bonaparte 
answered boldly, " Perfectly, and I am in the habit of 
accompHshing what I undertake ! " This answer pleased 
the authorities, who gave him full powers, thus enabling 
Bonaparte, in the course of the next night, to place his 
cannon so that he could sweep with grapeshot every street 
leading up to the palace. 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792- 1795) 



121 



Early the next morning, the Parisians came — an army 
40,000 strong — to invade the Tuileries. After allowing 
them to draw sufficiently near, Bonaparte, without the 
least compunction, gave orders to fire, and, as he had pre- 
dicted when the mob invaded the Tuileries in the days of 
Louis XVI. (see page 79), the death of a few hundred 




Draitinq h)/ Raffct. 



Napoleon disperses the Parisians. 



men so terrified the rest that all fled. Bonaparte thus 
kept his promise, winning such prestige by this triumph 
that he was able shortly after to disarm the Parisians, 
who ever since the taking of the Bastille had been well 
armed, and hence able to take an active part in every 
fray. 

With the grapeshot which quelled the rioters, Bonaparte 
also put an end to the Revolution, of which the greatest 



122 MODERN FRANCE 

permanent effect was the establishment of civil and reli- 
gious equality in the eyes of the law. As already men- 
tioned, the Revolution also caused the adoption of the 
metric system of weights and measures, a system which has 
been of lasting advantage to the country; but the Conven- 
tion's attempt to revise the calendar proved an utter failure, 
although it was given a fair trial of over ten years. This 
plan was to begin numbering the years from September 
21, 1792, which was called "the Republican Era." Each 
year was to contain twelve months of thirty days ; the five 
days extra in ordinary years — and six in leap years — were 
to be devoted to national festivals, dedicated to Genius, In- 
dustry, Fine Actions, Rewards, and Public Opinion, and 
were dubbed collectively *' Sansculottide Days." The old 
month names were replaced by the "vintage," "mist," and 
"frost" months for autumn; the "snow," "rain," and 
"wind" months for winter; the "bud," "flower," 
and "meadow" months for spring; and the "harvest," 
"heat," and "fruit" months for summer {vcndemiaire, 
bnimaire, frimaire ; nivose, pluviose, ventose ; gertninal^ 
floreal^ prairial ; messidor, thermidor^ fritctidor). The 
week was abolished ; instead, the month was divided into 
" decades " of ten days each, the last day of each decade 
being set aside for rest. 

It is estimated that the French Revolution cost France 
about 1,000,000 lives, many of those who perished being 
the elite (choice) of the nation. But, strange to relate, all 
the riots and massacres of these six years seemed to effect 
little change in the daily life of the people, which went on 
much as usual. Some people even invented new styles of 
dress called "victim fashions" (a la victime) and wore 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 123 

miniature guillotines as ornaments, many of them having 
apparently assumed the old motto, " Let us eat, drink, and 
be merry, for to-morrow we die ! " 

XXIV. THE ORPHANS OF THE TEMPLE 

IT was on June 8, 1795, before the Convention finished its 
sessions, that another of the Temple prisoners left its 
walls forever. That was little Louis Capet, once the 
Dauphin, and since his father's death known by Royalists 
as Louis XVII., although he never reigned. You remem- 
ber that this poor child entered the Temple in August, 1792, 
and that about a year later, after his father's death, he was 
torn from his mother to be intrusted to the brutal care of 
Siaion. Now, it is believed that some of the rabid Revolu- 
tionists, feeling that they could not guillotine a child, and 
not daring to get rid of him by secret assassination lest 
they be found out, wished to undermine his health by con- 
finement and ill treatment, so he would die a natural death, 
thus putting a stop to all Royalist attempts to place him 
on his father's throne. 

The brutal Simon had the care (?) of this innocent victim 
until Madam Elizabeth was removed from the Temple. 
Shortly after that. Madam Royal heard a great commo- 
tion, and fancied that her little brother was being removed 
to another place. The men who brought her scanty meals 
(they themselves now ate the food intended for the royal 
prisoners), and those who, three times a day and some- 
times in the middle of the night, suddenly entered and 
searched her room to discover whether she could be cor- 



124 



MODERN FRANCE 



responding with "traitors," answered all her questions by 
saying only, '* I advise you to have patience and to trust in 
the justice and goodness of Frenchmen." 

The noise which had prompted Madam Royal's vain 
questions was caused by the moving of Simon and of his 
wife, — now tired of prison life, — and by the transfer of 

her poor little 
brother to a 
room upstairs, 
where, young as 
he was, his jail- 
ers were going 
to leave him 
many months 
all alone. Only 
once during all 
that time was 
Louis's room 
cleaned, and it 
was never aired, 
the window be- 
ing covered and 
nailed fast to 
insure safety. 
The child's food 
was handed to him through a wicket, where he was obhged 
to show his face night or day, whenever called by the men 
on guard, and the only Hght he saw at night was that 
flashed on his pale features by the sentinel's lantern! 

Poor little Louis was so afraid of every one by this time, 
that he never dared speak to the sentinels, and, during the 




Painting by Lebrun. 

Madam Royal and the Dauphin in Happier Days. 



NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) 125 

last months of his captivity, he proved so dumb that a few 
of the men actually beHeved a deaf-mute child had been 
locked up there instead of the little prince ! This suspicion 
gave rise to many romantic stories, in which the prince is 
said to have escaped, and to have lived to grow up, marry, 
and have children, whose descendants still exist. 

Every day the small prisoner was given a crock of water, 
so he could have washed and kept clean, and he had a 
broom with which he might have swept his room, yet he 
did nothing of the sort, simply because he had always been 
washed, dressed, and waited upon, and was not accustomed 
to do anything for himself. Without books, or toys, or other 
means of occupation, amusement, or exercise, the child 
naturally became dull and listless, and the uncleanliness 
and bad air so undermined his health, that when he was 
finally given a bath and clean clothes, and later placed in 
another room with an attendant as kind as he dared be to 
this pitiful wreck, it was only too evident that the child had 
only a short time to live. 

Then, Robespierre being dead, at last, the government, 
more humanely inclined, sent to the little patient a doctor 
who had attended him in his happy days, but now could 
do naught but ease his last moments. Even then the poor 
boy still remembered his mother, for he once piteously 
begged to go to her, ceasing only when told that such a 
request would endanger his kind keeper's life. Although 
Louis now had company by day, he was still always locked 
up alone at night, and although the sister who had been 
his beloved playmate was under the selfsame roof, he was 
never allowed one glimpse of her face ! 

We are told that he suffered greatly from tumors and 



126 MODERN FRANCE 

sores, — the result of neglect and harsh treatment, — but 
that he was always patient and gentle. Once, when his 
attendant expressed regret at his anguish, the poor little 
laddie said, ''Console yourself; I shall not suffer always." 
No, the poor little martyr's trials were nearly over. A few 
moments before he died, a smile — the first in many months 
— passed over his wasted face as with a rapturous look he 
exclaimed that he heard his mother singing ! A moment 
later his spirit had left the place where he had been so un- 
happy, and had gone to join that of his beloved parents. 
Louis XVII. was then ten years and two months old 
(1795), having spent nearly three years of this short life in 
the Temple prison. 

A few months later, just when the Convention was draw- 
ing to a close, his sister, who had been alone in her prison 
ever since Madam Elizabeth's departure, was allowed the 
company of a woman, and was soon after informed that she 
would be sent to Austria, in exchange for the commis- 
sioners surrendered by Dumouriez (see page 94). But it 
was only a few hours before she left the Temple, that her 
eager questions were finally answered and she was told 
in the briefest and baldest way that she no longer had 
mother, brother, or aunt! When the death of her aunt 
was made known to her, Madam Royal exclaimed in 
broken-hearted accents : "What! Elizabeth, too ! She was 
a saint ! " 

Do you wonder that this poor girl had written on her 
prison walls : '* Marie Therese is the most unhappy crea- 
ture in the world. She can obtain no news of her mother, 
nor be reunited to her, though she has asked it a thousand 
times ! " But after the above news had been communicated 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 127 

to her, she traced the words, " Oh, my God ! forgive those 
who have made my family die," thus proving that she, like 
her brother, was mindful of the last injunctions of her 
parents. 

This poor young princess left her awful prison where 
she had been three and a half years, on her seventeenth 
birthday, to be escorted to the Austrian frontier, where 
she was exchanged for the other prisoners. From Vienna, 
at her request, she was sent to Russia to join her uncle 
(her father's brother, the "clever boy "), who, ever since her 
little brother's death, had claimed the empty title of Louis 
XVIII., King of France. In 1799, four years after leav- 
ing prison, she married the Duke of Angouleme (aN-goo- 
1am'), eldest son of her father's second brother (Count 
of Artois), as had already been decided in the happy days 
of her childhood, so you will hear of her again, as Duchess 
of Angouleme, for she was to play a further part in French 
history. 



-ootoityo- 



XXV. THE YOUTH OF NAPOLEON 

THE new government, called " the Directory," which 
was to last four years (i 795-1 799), was organized 
under the " Constitution of the Year III." Under this 
plan, the lawmaking power was given, as we have seen, to 
two assembHes — that of the Five Hundred, which pro- 
posed measures, and that of the Ancients, which ratified 
or rejected them ; and the executive power was intrusted 
to five Directors. The men first chosen as Directors were 
Carnot, Barras, and three other Republicans, who immedi- 
ately proceeded to estabhsh themselves in the Luxem- 



128 MODERN FRANCE 

bourg(luk-saN-boor'), the beautiful palace built by the widow 
of Henry IV. But, while they found there magnificently 
decorated ceilings and walls, and superb hardwood floors, 
not an article of furniture was left, so they had to borrow a 
rickety pine table and a few straw-bottom chairs from the 
janitor to use in their first meeting. 

The new government promised so many good things 
that the people, anxious to forget the grim past, looked 
gayly forward toward the future. A great reaction had 
set in after all the terror and gloom of the past few years, 
and need was felt for brightness and gayety of all kinds. 
As a rule, it is those in the highest places who set the 
fashion, and as the most influential of the Directors was 
Barras, — a man of bad principles, who loved show and 
diversion, — it became the rage to dress extravagantly, as 
he did, and to indulge in all manner of pleasures. Some 
of these were innocent enough, but people who prided 
themselves upon having no religion did not know exactly 
where to stop. 

Barras, who was a great admirer of beauty and wit, liked 
to collect in his drawing-room all the most clever men and 
most charming women. Among the ladies frequently 
seen at his receptions were Madame Tallien (ta-lyaN^), a 
noted beauty ; Josephine de Beauharnais (bo-ar-ne'), whose 
husband had been guillotined and who had barely escaped 
the same fate ; and Madame Recamier (ra-ca-mya'), whose 
grace and beauty were proverbial. These ladies affected 
a Greek style of dress, with very short waist, which, from 
the time when it appeared in France, has always been 
known as the " Directoire " (de-rek-twar') or " Empire " 
fashion. Among the many interesting men was Bonaparte, 



THE DIRECTORY (i 795-1 799) 129 

"the little Corsican officer," who now had a chance to see 
Josephine, with whom he fell desperately in love. He 
was, however, quite as poor as she, and as there were two 
Beauharnais children to support, marriage seemed almost 
impossible. Still, Josephine was so fascinating, and such 
a favorite with Barras, that she confidently believed a way 
would open for this young officer before long. 

Josephine was right, for Carnot, who had ably looked 
after the Republican armies for many years, was making 
an elaborate plan for attacking Austria and Germany, with 
which the Republic was still at war. By this plan, three 
armies were to start from different points, two in the 
north and one in the south, to meet later at Vienna, and 
bring the Emperor to terms. As two of the Directors, 
Carnot and Barras, had already seen what Bonaparte could 
do, they gave this young man, then twenty-seven, the 
command of the southern army, at Josephine's request. 

A few^ days, therefore, before Bonaparte's departure to 
join the army and show what he could do, he and Josephine 
were married, " Republican fashion "; that is to say, with- 
out any religious ceremony whatever. As these two 
persons are to be often mentioned hereafter, you will be 
interested in hearing about the early life of each of them. 

Napoleon Bonaparte was the second of ten children, 
and, although both his parents were Italian, he always 
claimed to be French, because he was born in Corsica a 
short time after that island was united to France. Father 
Bonaparte, though a poor officer, educated these children 
as best he could, sending Napoleon to Brienne, a prepara- 
tory military school, at the age of ten. 

Napoleon was, from childhood, extremely obstinate and 



I30 



MODERN FRANCE 



intensely vain. It hurt his feelings so sorely to be less well 
dressed than the other boys, that he proved gloomy and 
reserved at first, refusing to mix with the other pupils or 
to make friends. After a while, however, he began to 
shine in mathematics and in games, especially in those 
where he could direct the motions of others and act as 
leader, his side being always sure to win in snowball 




Painting by Realier-Dumas. 



Napoleon at Brienne. 



fights, for instance. While at Brienne, Napoleon lost his 
father, who, in the midst of his wildest delirium, is said to 
have uttered these prophetic words : " Where is my son. 
Napoleon } He whose sword will make kings tremble, 
he who will change the face of the world ! " After re- 
maining five years at Brienne, the boy about whom such 
great deeds were foretold, was transferred to the military 
academy in Paris, bearing a note from his former teachers, 
saying, '* He will do great things if fortune favors him." 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 131 

Graduating from this school as second Heutenant of 
artillery, Bonaparte was stationed in various garrisons in 
southern France, where, having nothing save his pay — 
generally in arrears — and hence not being able to lead or 
shine in military circles, he became retiring and gloomy, 
read a great deal, and even tried to write an immortal 
novel. At the siege of Toulon, he got his first chance to 
distinguish himself, and attracted the attention of Barras, 
but afterwards, the government having meantime changed, 
Bonaparte was imprisoned for a while. When he returned 
to Paris, he was out of both work and money, and, in an- 
swer to his applications for an appointment, received every- 
where the discouraging reply, " You are too young," 
although he vehemently urged, '* One ages fast on the 
battlefield ! " while proudly mentioning his previous services. 

Just as Bonaparte, in despair, was about to offer, his 
services to Turkey, Barras called upon him, as we have 
seen, to subdue the Parisians (see page 120); and shortly 
after the Directory had been instituted, he was appointed 
general in chief of the army destined to invade Italy. 

Josephine, being born of French parents in the West 
Indies, was often called a Cre'ole (a name applied to Euro- 
pean children born in the tropics). She came to France, 
very young, to marry Viscount de Beauharnais, and they 
had two children, Eugene and Hortense, of whom you will 
hear more. The Beauharnais couple having quarreled, 
Josephine returned to her parents with her little daughter, 
but the dispute was patched up by letters, so that she re- 
turned once more to France. She was then so poor that 
her little girl, having worn out her only pair of shoes in 
dancing to amuse the sailors, gladly accepted from one of 



132 MODERN FRANCE 

them a pair of slippers rudely cobbled from the tops of an 
old pair of boots ! 

When the Revolution broke out, the Beauharnais couple, 
being aristocrats, became ''suspects" and were put in prison, 
their children being barely kept alive by the devotion of 
an old servant, who had to bind them out as apprentices. 
As you have seen, Beauharnais was guillotined, and 
Josephine escaped a similar fate by Robespierre^s fall. 
Just after Bonaparte had turned his cannon on the Pari- 
sians, he ordered all the houses searched for weapons, 
which were to be deposited once more in the city arsenals. 
In this search, the sword of Beauharnais, which hung in 
Eugene's room, and which he considered his most precious 
treasure, was ruthlessly carried off. Hoping to recover it, 
the lad hastened to headquarters, where he pleaded so 
eloquently that Bonaparte gave it back. The next day, 
Josephine came with her son to thank the general, and the 
acquaintance thus begun soon ripened into love and mar- 
riage. Although the Bonaparte honeymoon proved very 
short, the bridegroom was desperately in love, for he wrote 
letters to his beloved bride at every relay, while posting 
southward to join his forces.^ 

XXVI. BONAPARTE IN ITALY 

WHEN Bonaparte reached the army, early in 1796, 
he found he was none too welcome to the officers, 
all of whom were older, had served longer, and therefore 
thought themselves better fitted for the post of command. 

^ See Guerber's Empresses of France. 



THE DIRECTORY (i 795-1 799) 133 

Besides, the new general was then thin and sallow, and 
owing to his small stature looked far more like a boy than 
a great man. At the first council, however, where he 
boldly differed in opinion from all the rest, he made his 
authority so well felt that one of his subordinates exclaimed, 
after he left them, " Gentlemen, we have found our 
master ! " 

The task which Bonaparte was thus undertaking was 
not easy, for his forces were only about half as large as 
those he was called to combat ; there was no money for 
campaign expenses, and the soldiers, hungry, ragged, and 
badly shod, were half disposed to rebel, as they had not 
received any pay for a long time. Still, in his very first 
speech, Bonaparte changed their sullen apathy into wild 
enthusiasm, for, knowing " that imagination governs 
minds," he spoke as follows : " Soldiers, you are poorly 
fed and almost naked. The government owes you much, 
but can do nothing. I am about to lead you into the most 
fertile country in the world. There, great cities and pros- 
perous provinces await you. There, you will find honor, 
glory, and riches. Soldiers of the army of Italy, will you 
lack courage for the enterprise ? " 

This recognition of their grievances, and strong appeal 
to all their passions — to the highest as well as to the low- 
est — so fired the soldiers that they set out full of courage 
and ambition, along the old Roman shore road, and soon 
crossed the Alps by a low pass insufficiently guarded by 
the enemy. In Italy they had to meet both the Sardin'ian 
and the Austrian forces, which Bonaparte was thus able to 
fight singly. He skillfully separated them by winning 
several small battles. Then, having advanced within a 



134 MODERN FRANCE 

few miles of Tu'rin, the capital of the kingdom of Sar- 
dinia, he received the messengers who came to bargain 
for peace, with the haughty retort : " Terms ? It is I who 
name the terms. Accept them at once, or Turin will be 
in my hands to-morrow ! " 

The terrified Sardinians promptly made a treaty (Che- 
rasco) and withdrew from the war, thus leaving Bonaparte 
free to accompHsh the second and more difficult part of his 
task. Once more the soldiers were spurred on by one of 
his "volcanic" speeches, in which he began by artfully 
praising them for what they had done, saying : " Soldiers, 
you have won in a fortnight six victories, taken twenty-one 
flags, fifty-five cannon, several fortresses, and conquered 
the richest part of Piedmont! You have taken fifteen 
thousand prisoners, killed or wounded more than ten thou- 
sand men ! You have won battles without cannon, crossed 
rivers without bridges, made forced marches without shoes, 
camped without rum and often without bread. The Re- 
publican phalanxes, the soldiers of Liberty, were alone 
capable of undergoing what you have undergone ! Thanks 
be to you for it. But, soldiers, you have done nothing yet, 
since there still remains work for you to do." 

Thus stimulated, and full of the generous enthusiasm 
which soldiers always feel for a general who enables them 
to triumph, even by dint of extra efforts, the French bravely 
met the Austrians at Lo'di, where general and men, swept 
on by the same brave impulse, forced their way over a 
bridge to reach the foe beyond. It was here that Bona- 
parte earned his proudest title, ''the Little Corporal," his 
men declaring he had marched side by side with them, 
just as if he had been nothing more than a petty officer. 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 135 

One who witnessed this thrilUng charge wrote in regard 
to it : " It was strange to see him, on that bridge of Lodi, 
mixed up with his tall grenadiers. He looked a mere 
boy ! " Those tall grenadiers, by the way, were Bona- 
parte's special pets, and whenever he was particularly 
pleased with one of them, he was wont to show his satis- 
faction by reaching up the full length of his arm, and play- 
fully tweaking the giant's ear ! These men called him 
" Gray-coat " {la Redmgote Grise), because he often wore a 
long gray overcoat. 

The soldiers' devotion was due largely to Bonaparte's 
care for their comfort and to the sympathetic view he took 
of some of their shortcomings. We are informed, for in- 
stance, that once during this Italian campaign a sentinel, 
who had fallen asleep on duty, suddenly woke up to see 
his general, musket in hand, mounting guard in his stead. 
But all Bonaparte said to the delinquent on this occasion 
was : " My friend, here is your musket. You have fought 
hard and marched long, so your slumber is excusable. But 
the army might be lost by a moment's inattention. I 
happened to be awake and have held your post for you. 
You will be more careful hereafter, I know." 



a;*:©*- 



XXVII. END OF THE ITALIAN WAR 

AFTER the victory of Lodi, Bonaparte soon drove the 
Austrian army out of Mil'an, which he entered in 
triumph. Austria then sent army after army against him, 
each larger than his own, but he attacked them unex- 
pectedly and defeated them all, in three great battles. 




Painting by Gros 
(136) 



Napoleon at Lodi. 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 137 

The last of these in 1796 was at Arcole (ar'co-la), where 
seeing his men hesitate to cross a bridge, — swept like that 
at Lodibythe enemy's cannon, — Bonaparte quickly seized 
one of the red, white, and blue Republican flags, and, 
dashing ahead, led them on to victory. 

These repeated triumphs were meantime filling the hearts 
of the French people with pride and joy, and those of the 
enemy with rage and fear. Many hesitated to measure 
their strength against so able a foe, among others the 
Duke of Parma, the Duke of Mo'de-na, and the Pope, all 
three of whom compromised and made treaties with 
France. As one city after another opened its gates to 
Bonaparte, the Austrians were forced to retreat in dis- 
may, leaving him free to besiege Man'tua, their greatest 
stronghold in Italy. 

Meanwhile the two northern armies, under Jourdan 
(zhoor-daN^) and Moreau (mo-r5'), were working hard, 
too. Moreau swept on victorious, until not very far 
from Vienna; but the other general, less fortunate, met 
defeat and was driven back, while Bonaparte was not yet 
ready to advance beyond Italy. Moreau, therefore, left 
alone to cope with the enemy in his own land, beat a mas- 
terly retreat without losing a cannon or a man. The Aus- 
trians, encouraged by these northern triumphs, and further 
aided by sundry rebellions in Italian cities, now sent greater 
forces against Bonaparte, who seemed, at last, to be caught 
fast in their toils. When he therefore ordered a retreat, 
his men obeyed in sullen silence, but when the soldiers 
perceived that this move was a mere feint which would en- 
able them to win another triumph, they fought with such 
ardor that they won a brilliant victory at Rivoli (ree'vo-lee), 



138 



MODERN FRANCE 




Fainting by Phillippoteaitx. 

Napoleon at the Battle of Rivoli. 

early in 1797. About one month later, Mantua — in which 
one of the Austrian armies had taken refuge — was forced 
to surrender, and the French army then pushed on into 
Austria, until halted by offers of peace. 

After long negotiations, the famous treaty of Cam'po 
For'mio was agreed upon; by this, France was to have 
Belgium, with the Rhine as northern frontier, and to re- 
main in possession of Savoy, Nice, and some other con- 
quests; northern Italy was to form the Cisal'pine Republic, 
the Pope losing some of his territory; and Venice, — in- 
cluding Dalma'tia, Is'tria, and much of northeastern Italy, 
— after nearly fourteen centuries of independence, was to 
belong to Austria. Once, in the course of these discussions, 
when the Austrian plenipotentiary (a man armed with 
full powers) refused to grant certain conditions, Bonaparte 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 139 

in a rage suddenly dashed a precious vase to pieces on the 
floor, crying, '* I will break your monarchy as I have broken 
this ! " This savage threat had the desired effect, as did 
also the haughty boast, '' The Republic is like the sun ; 
only the blind fail to recognize it! " when objection was 
made to acknowledging the change of government in 
France. 

The peace secured by Bonaparte, so gratifying in many 
respects, was a great disappointment to General Hoche 
(osh), who, having finished the long war in the Vendee, 
had hastened on to join the northern armies. He won 
several battles, and was about to capture an Austrian army 
when the peace was made. But, although Hoche promised 
to be a worthy rival of Bonaparte, his career was cut short 
by an early death. 

Meantime, Bonaparte had all along been carrying out 
the program he had made in the beginning, plundering 
ruthlessly everywhere. Not only did he obtain miUions 
enough, as booty and tribute, to supply all the needs of his 
army and to send money to the government at home, but he 
wrung from each city its choicest art treasures, which were 
immediately forwarded to France. In this way the Louvre 
(looVr') owned at one time nearly all the great master- 
pieces of Europe, most of which, however, France was 
obhged to restore to their owners a few years later, as we 
shall see. 

Bonaparte, who had left Paris poor, lived now in Italy 
like a prince, his wife and family having joined him to 
enjoy his triumphs and to share in his good fortune. But 
nevertheless he was closely watching matters in Paris and 
elsewhere, for he had now fully made up his mind to 



I40 MODERN FRANCE 

become master, and, as he expressed it, was "only waiting 
until the pear was ripe." He knew "the pear" was be- 
ginning to ripen, because the Directory was having the 
utmost difficulty to hold its own. 

The people were so discontented with this government 
that in 1797 they elected many Royalist members of the 
Councils ; but soon after, by a coup d'etat (coo da-ta'), — a 
sudden seizure of power, or forcible change in govern- 
ment, — three of the Directors deposed the other two, and 
excluded the Royalist members from the Councils. The 
feeling of unrest spread beyond the French frontiers. 
Switzerland, adopting French Republican ideas, and 
being aided by French troops, overthrew its old govern- 
ment and replaced it with a new one, taking the name 
of Helve'tian Republic. Before long, six such little 
republics were estabhshed in Europe, for, besides the 
Batavian, Helvetian, and Cisalpine republics already men- 
tioned, the French helped in the formation of the 
Ligu'rian Republic in Genoa, the Roman in Rome, 
and the Parthenope'an in Naples — by stirring up trou- 
ble in these places by underhand means, and then in- 
terfering openly under pretext of quelling disturbances and 
restoring order ! 

Just as 1797 was drawing to a close, Bonaparte returned 
to Paris to receive the plaudits of a grateful people when 
he publicly deposited the treaty of Campo Formio on the 
altar of his country. Talleyrand — who was to be first his 
friend and later his foe — embraced him publicly on that 
occasion, hailing him as "the man of the centuries," while 
Bonaparte, not to be outdone in fine-sounding phrases, 
spoke of France as " the Great Nation," 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 141 

The name of the street where Bonaparte lived was 
changed in his honor to Victory Street, and he was cheered 
whenever he appeared in the theater ; but, for all that, he 
fully realized that his fame would soon die out unless he 
did something to keep himself before the eyes and mind 
of the public. Seeing that the time was not yet ripe to 
change the government to his advantage, and that the 
invasion of England, which the Directory proposed, was 
not feasible, — owing principally to the fact that there were 
not enough French ships to transport the required armed 
forces across the Channel, — Bonaparte suggested attack- 
ing England in her colonies, saying that by depriving her 
of her Indian Empire, she would be robbed of her chief 
source of wealth, and hence of " sinews " for her wars. 



3>»C< 



XXVIII. EXPEDITION TO EGYPT 

WHEN Bonaparte proposed to the Directors to 
conquer Egypt, and thus prevent the English from 
reaching India save by way of the Cape of Good Hope, 
his proposal was accepted — principally because the 
Directors were jealous of his success and popularity, and 
desperately afraid lest he should not only eclipse, but, in 
time, supplant them. Preparations were therefore hastened, 
and he sailed from Toulon in May, 1798, with a force of 
tried soldiers and fine officers. 

The English, warned of the preparation of the French 
fleet, but not knowing its destination, sent ships to re- 
enforce their admiral Nelson, near Toulon, so that he 
could fight it. These ships arrived too late, and Nelson 



142 



MODERN FRANCE 



cruised wildly around the Mediterranean, trying to find 
the French fleet. Meantime, Bonaparte had stopped at 
Mal'ta, where, under pretext of renewing his fresh water 
supply, he landed some of his troops. Then, as had been 
previously arranged, traitors threw open the gates, thus 
surrendering to the French, without a blow, the mighty 
fortress which had been the stronghold o^ the Knights 
Hos'pitalers ever since 1530. But such was the strength 
of these island .defenses, that one of the generals, after 
examining them, exclaimed, " It was very lucky for us that 
there was some one inside to open the gates to admit us ! " 

On the way from Malta to Alexandria, Bonaparte and 
his staff spent long evenings on deck, enjoying the balmy 
air, blue seas, and starry skies. Once, when one of the 
officers expressed atheistic views, — such as were fashion- 
able since the Roman Catholic religion had suffered an 
eclipse in France, — he was silenced by Bonaparte's point- 
ing to the heavens above them and remarking, " You 
may talk as much as you please, gentlemen, but tell me 
who made all that .''" 

On nearing Alexandria, the French admiral wished to 
wait a few days to effect a safer landing ; but Bonaparte, 
knowing that time was precious and that he must land be- 
fore the English could come up to prevent it, insisted upon 
disembarking immediately. He soon became master of 
the city of Alexandria, and then, while the navy moved off 
to anchor at Abukir (a-boo-keer'), he set out to march 
with the army to Cairo. On the way thither, perceiving 
that new conditions required new methods, Bonaparte 
arranged that at any alarm his troops should form in 
squares, placing their baggage, laden on donkeys, and all 




(143) 



144 MODERN FRANCE 

noncombatants in the center. As his expedition was ac- 
companied by a corps of illustrious scientists, — to study 
the country and its resources, and to select its choicest 
treasures to ship back to France as trophies, — the usual 
cry, when any danger threatened, was, " Form square, 
donkeys and scientists to the center ! " 

It was witliin sight of the hoary Pyramids that Bona- 
parte first encountered the fierce Mam'elukes who were 
then the ruHng class in Egypt. He gave the signal for 
battle, with the brief reminder, " Soldiers, from the sum- 
mits of those Pyramids forty centuries are looking down 
upon you ! " Here the foe were so sorely beaten that all 
Egypt was practically conquered, and Bonaparte could 
enter Cairo without striking another blow. Then, while 
one of his generals pursued the fleeing Mamelukes as far as 
the Nile cataracts, Bonaparte busied himself and his corps 
of scientists in ascertaining the resources of the country 
so as to increase its productivity. He also ordered many 
of the ancient canals repaired, and planned a Suez^ Canal 
(not constructed till after his time). He respected the 
native customs and beliefs ; ate lentils like the inhabitants ; 
took part in the Nile festival, — at the time when the flood 
begins, — where he was called "favorite of Allah"; and 
appeared, we are told, in the native dress. 

While Bonaparte was thus busy on land, the French 
fleet, riding at anchor in Abukir Bay, was discovered by 
the searching Nelson, who destroyed it in the famous 
" Battle of the Nile." It was during this battle that the 
ten-year-old son of Admiral Casabian'ca (ca-za-byan^ca) 
proved his obedience to his father's orders by standing 
*'on the burning deck" of the Orient until that vessel 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 145 

exploded. Should you not happen to remember this 
familiar episode, do read it in the poem by Mrs. Hem'ans. 

On hearing of this naval disaster, Bonaparte exclaimed 
philosophically, " To France the Fates have decreed the em- 
pire of the land — to England that of the sea ! " Neverthe- 
less, he knew that this defeat would prevent his receiving 
supplies or even news from France, and would cut off all 
present chance of returning thither with his army. He 
therefore declared, '' This reverse will compel us to do even 
greater things than we had planned," and prepared to 
cross the Isthmus of Suez and enter Syria, intending to 
gain the key to the East by becoming master of the fortress 
of A^cre. 

On the way to Acre, Bonaparte seized Jaffa, where he 
ordered a cruel massacre of the Turkish prisoners ; and 
he would have secured the fortress he coveted, had not Sir 
Sidney Smith come with his fleet to help the Turks defend 
it. Later Bonaparte declared, " That man marred my 
destiny ! " thinking that the possession of Acre would 
have enabled him to get the better of both the Turks and 
the English, their allies. Meantime, a plague had broken 
out in Bonaparte's army, so that his soldiers were panic- 
stricken. To hearten them by proving that the plague 
was not contagious, Bonaparte went among the sick, even 
touching those who were most seriously affected by the 
disease. 

Shortly after, forced to retreat to Egypt, and so closely 
pursued that he could not remove some hopelessly sick 
men from Jaffa, Bonaparte proposed to the doctor to give 
them a dose which would hasten their end and prevent 
their falling into the foe's hands while still alive. This 



146 



MODERN FRANCE 




Painting dy Gros. 



Napoleon at Jaffa. 



doctor, even under such conditions, proved mindful only of 
his oath, for he coldly replied, " My art teaches me to cure 
men, not to kill them." 

A host of Turks soon landed at Abukir Bay, with the 
intention of crushing Bonaparte and his forces. But, in- 
stead of accomplishing this purpose, they were themselves 
destroyed, so that Bonaparte's rule in Egypt was secure. 
Murat (mii-ra'), the friend and future brother-in-law of 
Bonaparte, distinguished himself in this battle of Abukir 
by making a brilliant charge at the head of the cavalry. 
But before this battle could " decide the fate of the world," 
as Bonaparte said, it had to become known in PYance, 
where no news had been received of the Egyptian expedi- 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 147 

tion for so many months, that the Directory felt sure that 
Bonaparte's bones must already be whitening on the desert 
sands ! 

»o>»io« 

XXIX. BONAPARTE'S COUP D'ETAT 

BONAPARTE had been without news from home for 
ten long months, so he was not aware of many im- 
portant events that happened since his departure. The 
Directory had governed weakly and unfairly at home, and 
abroad had so mismanaged things that the recent French 
conquests in Italy were already lost. The new southern 
republics, after a brief existence, had been overthrown, 
and the old governments restored ; besides, measures were 
even now being taken to punish the French, who had 
robbed Italy so ruthlessly of many treasures, and had de- 
tained Pope Pius VI. in captivity ! Of course, the news 
of all these disasters to France delighted her English 
foes; and Sir Sidney Smith, thinking it might discourage 
French soldiers so far away from home, sent a bundle of 
newspapers to Bonaparte. You can imagine how eagerly 
these newspapers were devoured, but they produced a very 
different effect from that which was expected. 

The French army could not leave, for English vessels 
were patroUing the Mediterranean, but Bonaparte calcu- 
lated that one vessel might, perchance, sHp through unseen. 
He therefore left General Kleber(kla-bar')in charge of the 
army in Egypt, and, taking the ablest officers with him, 
embarked to run the blockade. Some authorities state that 
Napoleon was only too glad to leave Egypt just after win- 
ning a famous victory, because he foresaw that thereafter 



148 MODERN FRANCE 

things would go wrong, and wanted some one else to bear 
the blame ! However that may be, Kleber did not make 
friends with the Mohammedans, nor did he maintain good 
order ; after sundry ups and downs, he was stabbed from 
behind, his successor was defeated by an English army, 
and Egypt was lost to the French (1801). 

Meantime, Bonaparte's ship — by great good fortune, 
and thanks to a heavy fog — passed unseen through the 
English blockade, so he could land in France, to announce 
his Egyptian triumphs, which lost nothing by his telling ! 
The French, who love glory and success, now remembered 
that while Bonaparte was at the head of the army, they 
had been victorious, and that money had been plentiful. 
They naturally concluded that the Directors and other 
generals were less capable than Bonaparte, who really felt 
pleased that things had gone wrong, for he confessed 
later, " In order that I should become master of France, 
it was necessary that the Directory should experience re- 
verses during my absence." 

These reverses having come, Bonaparte, standing once 
more before the Directors, chided them like naughty 
schoolboys, saying : " What have you done with the 
France I left so glorious ? I left peace, I find war ; I left 
you victories, I find defeats ; I left you millions, I find 
starvation!" Then, the pear being ''ripe," and therefore 
ready to pluck, he cleverly laid plans to overthrow the 
government, by a cotip d'etat on November 9 (or i8th 
Brumaire), 1799. Among those who plotted with him were 
his brother Lucien Bonaparte, president of the Council of 
Five Hundred ; many members of the Council of Ancients ; 
and Sieyes, now one of the Directors. 



THE DIRECTORY (1795-1799) 149 

The Directors having been either cowed or induced to 
resign, both councils were transferred to St. Cloud (saN 
cloo'), where they were closely guarded by soldiers, under 
pretext of threatened trouble among the people. Thus 
Bonaparte prepared everything to gain his own way, be- 
fore marching into the Hall where the Council of Ancients 
were sitting. They made no opposition whatever to his 
demands, which were that he and his friends should be 
empowered to draw up a new constitution. He said : " We 
want a Republic, founded on true liberty and national rep- 
resentation. We shall have it, I swear. I swear in my 
own name and in that of my companions in arms ! " 

On his way to the Hall of the Five Hundred, which he 
meant to visit next, Bonaparte met one of his military 
friends, who exclaimed in dismay and anger, '* You've 
gotten yourself in a pretty mess ! " But Bonaparte 
promptly answered : " It was worse at Arcole. Just keep 
quiet. In half an hour things will change ! " Escorted by 
a few grenadiers, he then marched into the hall of the Five 
Hundred, which he had no right to enter thus ; so the 
loud, angry cry immediately arose : *' What is this ? 
Swords here ! Armed men ! Away ! We will have no 
dictator ! " In fact, the indignant roar became so persistent 
that Bonaparte could not make himself heard. Then one 
man sprang forward to stab him ; whereupon the general 
turned ghastly pale, lost his presence of mind, and had to be 
almost carried out of the assembly by his tall grenadiers. 

At the door, Bonaparte encountered his brother Lucien, 
to whom he cried in consternation, "They are going to 
outlaw me ! " 

" Outlaw you ? " retorted Lucien. " Turn them out of 



I50 MODERN FRANCE 

the Hall ! " This suggestion was promptly carried out, 
and the Five Hundred fled in confusion, when the grena- 
diers charged in with lowered bayonets, after proclaiming 
at the open door : " In the name of General Bonaparte, 
this Legislative Assembly is dissolved. Let all good 
citizens therefore retire ! " 

This proved the end of the Directory and the beginning 
of a new government called "the Consulate," Bonaparte 
and a few helpers directing everything until they could 
frame a new constitution (the fourth since 1789) and get 
the people to adopt it. But the proposed changes imme- 
diately raised suspicions in the breasts of some of the 
French, who feared for their hard-won liberties and 
dreaded a second Cromwell. These fears were, however, 
quieted for a while by Lucien's theatrical announcement, 
as he brandished his sword : " For my own part, I swear 
to run this through my own brother, if he ever strikes a 
blow at the liberties of the French ! " 

Nevertheless, the " liberties of the French " were al- 
ready in a bad way. The Revolution, which had culmi- 
nated in 1794, gave the people the power to control the 
government by frequent elections ; but the Directory had not 
worked well, and now the people were ready to resign 
some of their power in order to secure a stronger govern- 
ment. By beheading harmless Louis XVL, the French 
had rid themselves of a mild " tyrant " or " despot " ; they 
were soon to taste of the rule of a genuine tyrant, thus 
learning how mistaken all their former estimates of autoc- 
racy had been. 

It was only a short time after the French government 
had thus been changed again in France, that the news ar- 



THE CONSULx\TE (1799- 1804) 151 

rived from America that George Washington had breathed 
his last. In making these tidings ofificially known, Bona- 
parte ordered the flags draped with crape for ten days, 
adding : " Washington is dead ! That great man fought 
against tyranny. He estabUshed the Uberty of his coun- 
try. His memory will be ever dear to the freemen of both 
hemispheres, and especially to the French soldiers, who, 
like him and like the American troops, have fought for 
liberty and equality ! " 

Well would it have been for France had Bonaparte been 
actuated by the same unselfish motives as Washington ! 
While he undoubtedly " had the will, the power, and the 
capacity to direct everything," while he was a military 
genius and a great administrator, the lack of correspond- 
ing moral qualities prevented him from really becoming 
the greatest man the world has ever seen, although for a 
time he seemed to have attained that dizzy height. 



3>»i< 



XXX. THE CONSULATE 

BONAPARTE'S coitp d'etat had, as we have seen, es- 
tablished a new form of government; but the new con- 
stitution was formally adopted only after having been 
submitted to the nation, each voter being asked to state 
whether he wished to see it adopted or not. By this 
plebiscite, or vote of the people, it was ascertained that 
more than 3,000,000 voters were in favor of its adoption, 
and only 1500 opposed, which proves how gladly it was 
welcomed by the nation in general. Indeed, as one man 
said, " The people are so weary, so disgusted with Revolu- 



152 MODERN FRANCE 

tionary horrors and follies, that they are sure any change 
will be for the better." 

The new Consulate was a republic with one man in 
reality supreme, that man being, of course, Bonaparte him- 
self, the First Consul. Still, mainly to blind the people to 
this fact, a Senate and a Legislative Corps were chosen, 
though given little real power, and two other consuls (Cam- 
baceres and Lebrun) were appointed, who, however, were 
so subordinate to the chief executive, or First Consul, that 
they were merely his advisers. Even at that time the most 
clear-sighted perceived that everything would henceforth 
center in Bonaparte, and one man remarked prophetically, 
" That young man has begun like Caesar, and I fear he 
will have the same end." 

Bonaparte declared at the very outset, " In future, we 
will have no parties, no Jacobins, no Royalists, but only 
Frenchmen ; " and he showed his impartiality by appoint- 
ing Talleyrand, a Royalist, and Fouche (foo-sha'), a 
Jacobin, as ministers of Foreign Affairs and of the Police. 
His mottoes being, ''Every career open to talent," and "The 
tools belong to him who can handle them," he picked out 
men regardless of their origin or station, considering only 
their fitness for the work he wished them to do. Before 
long (1802) he also instituted what is still a most popular 
and democratic order, that of "the Legion of Honor," 
whose members were to be recruited from those who had 
distinguished themselves in some way, thereby " deserving 
well from the country." With the perception of genius, 
the skill of a born administrator, and the untiring energy 
for which he was noted all through life, Bonaparte brought 
order out of chaos with marvelous rapidity, arranging things 



THE CONSULATE (1799- 1804) 153 

so that prosperity should return as fast as possible to a 
sorely stricken country. 

In a very short time anarchy was ended, religion 
restored, exiles recalled, and trade recovering ; for the 
country was so weary of the disorder and excesses of the 
last ten years that it was " ready to perform the impossi- 
ble " to help him. The new and very capable hand at the 
helm soon steered the ship of state into much smoother 
waters, and, as confidence returned, even social life became 
gayer and more brilliant. The center of festivities now, as 
of old, was the Tuileries, for on the very day he was in- 
stalled First Consul, Bonaparte decided to leave the Luxem- 
bourg, — where the Directors had sat, — and to take pos- 
session of the former abode of royalty. On perceiving the 
glaring *' liberty caps and pikes " with which Revolutionary 
taste had decorated the palace, he said contemptuously, 
" Remove all those things; I don't like to see such rub- 
bish ! " — a remark which, a few years before, would 
doubtless have sent him to the guillotine. 

While Bonaparte himself continued to be styled '* Citizen 
First Consul," Josephine, who now did the honors of the 
palace most gracefully, was invariably called "Madame," 
and greeted by ambassadors and visitors of all kinds in the 
old courtly manner. She was a general favorite, and Bona- 
parte acknowledged how helpful her tact was when he once 
said, " I win battles, but Josephine wins hearts!" 

You might think that Bonaparte could now feel satisfied 
with what he had accomplished. Evidently he was not, 
for when some one complimented him upon his achieve- 
ments, he said : " Yes, I have done enough, it is true ! In 
less than two years I have won Cairo, Paris, and Milan ; 



154 



MODERN FRANCE 



but for all that, my dear fellow, were I to die to-morrow, I 
should not, at the end of ten centuries, occupy one half a 
page of general history ! " 

In beginning his new functions, Bonaparte declared that 

he was in favor 
of peace, and 
wrote fine letters 
to England and 
Austria to pro- 
pose that the 
war be ended. 
But as he would 
conclude peace 
only in case they 
were willing to 
restore to France 
all that had re- 
cently been taken 
from her, his 
offers were not 
accepted, — a 
state of affairs 
which did not 
grieve him, for 
he remarked, 
"Conquest has made me what I am, and conquest alone 
can maintain me." 

Therefore, about three months after assuming the title of 
First Consul, Bonaparte, having again pacified the Ven- 
dee, gave Moreau orders to continue his campaign against 
Austria from the north, and himself prepared to lead an 




Painting by Prudhon. 

Josephine at Malmaison. 



THE CONSULATE (1799-1804) 155 

army into Italy for the second time. But as the bulk of 
the Austrian forces were then busy besieging Genoa, — 
the last stronghold of the French in Italy, — and were thus 
close at hand to check any attempt to enter this country 
by the shore road, Bonaparte determined to lead his army 
over the Alps by the higher pass of St. Bernard', farther 
north. The enemy did not think it possible that Bona- 
parte would come that way ; but Bonaparte often said that 
" impossible " is not a French word. The engineer sent by 
him to reconnoiter, objected to the great difficulties of 
this route, only to be interrupted by Bonaparte, who said, 
" Difficult, of course ; the only question is. Can it be done ? " 

" Yes, provided we make extraordinary efforts ! " re- 
plied the engineer. 

Such an admission was all Bonaparte required, for he 
immediately said : " Enough. Let us depart at once." 

While the army and supplies were being collected at 
Ge-ne'va, Bonaparte was completing his plans, and, just 
before leaving the Tuileries, showed his secretary a map 
of northern Italy, saying : '* At this point, I shall cross 
the Po. Here I shall meet the enemy on the plains, and 
there," putting his finger near Maren'go, " I shall fight 
and beat him ! " This statement, as we shall see, time was 
to verify. Still, on leaving Paris, Bonaparte significantly 
remarked to his ministers, '' Should anything happen, I 
shall be back like a thunderbolt ! " for he did not intend to 
let any one attempt to overthrow /lis government or take 
his place at its head. 

Having arrived at Geneva, Bonaparte visited Rousseau's 
grave, and was heard to wonder whether it would not have 
been better for France if that writer had never been, add- 



1 56 MODERN FRANCE 

ing, "Well, the future must decide whether it would not 
have been better for the repose of the whole world if 
neither I nor Rousseau had ever lived ! " 

The foe were still wondering where Bonaparte was going 
to direct the army he was reviewing at Geneva, when the 
crossing of the St. Bernard — where there were no tunnels 
or even decent roads in those days — had already begun. 
In fact, roads were made as the army advanced, and can- 
non were taken to pieces, and either carried or dragged by 
the soldiers themselves. The barrels of heavy guns, set in 
hollow logs, were hauled by hundreds of soldiers up dizzy 
heights, so that in less than six days thirty-five thousand men, 
with all their artillery and baggage, had scaled the mountain, 
and were "rushing down from the Alps like a torrent!" 

Bonaparte climbed the mountain also, mounted on one 
of the sure-footed donkeys of the region, led by an Alpine 
guide who little suspected the name or rank of his charge. 
To beguile this long climb over the St. Bernard, Bona- 
parte — who always tried to find out all he could about 
people — closely questioned this rustic guide, and finished 
by inquiring what was the man's greatest ambition. Thus 
learning that the man's highest hope was to purchase a 
small farm, properly stocked, Bonaparte greatly surprised 
him, soon after, by bestowing upon him the very place he 
had so well described ! 

XXXI. SECOND ITALIAN CAMPAIGN 

BY crossing the St. Bernard, Bonaparte's army arrived 
in Italy almost before the Austrian general, still at 
Genoa, could believe it was coming. All his plans were 



THE CONSULATE (i 799-1804) 157 

thus disconcerted, for he had intended to enter southern 
France as soon as Genoa was taken, to carry on the war 
there. Instead, he was now in danger of being captured. 
Hastening northward to escape, just as Bonaparte had fore- 
seen, one Austrian force was defeated at Montebel'lo ; but 
the greatest battle of the war took place, a few days later, 
at Maren'go (1800). Here the French, repulsed a first 
and a second time, were almost ready to yield, when Bona- 
parte cried : '' One battle is lost, but there is still time to 
win another. My friends, we have had enough of this. 
You know it is my custom to sleep on the battlefield." 

The soldiers, thrilled by his wonderful personal magnet- 
ism, and supported by the timely arrival of the troops under 
General Desaix (de-za'), then won a glorious victory, the 
only thing which marred Bonaparte's exultation being the 
death of this officer, for he exclaimed, " Ah, what a fine 
day this would have been, could I have greeted Desaix on 
the battlefield to-night! " 

By this victory, which forced this Austrian army to sur- 
render, Bonaparte in a forty days' campaign recovered 
possession of the Cisalpine Republic he had founded ; and 
four days later he had a solemn Te Deum sung in the 
Cathedral at Milan, thereby openly showing his intention 
thereafter to respect and uphold the Roman Catholic 
Church. The result of Bonaparte's successes in Italy and 
of Moreau's great victory at Hohenlin'den, in Germany, 
was the treaty of Luneville(lii-na-veel') with Austria (1801), 
whereby France was again extended to the Rhine, and the 
Batavian, Helvetian, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics were 
again confirmed. 

Meantime, the army left in Egypt under Kleber had 



158 MODERN FRANCE 

been sorely harassed by Turks and English, and the Eng- 
lish had taken Malta, Then, Kleber having been mur- 
dered, his successor, despairing of maintaining his ex- 
posed position abroad, made an arrangement whereby he 
gave up Egypt, while the English, in exchange, undertook 
to convey his army back to France. 

During their three years' occupation of Egypt, the 
French had effected many improvements, and their scien- 
tists had, besides, collected important data of all kinds. 
Among other things, the lost art of reading inscriptions 
on Egyptian monuments is due to this expedition. It 
seems that while the soldiers were digging a canal at 
Roset'ta, they discovered a slab of stone on which was in- 
scribed a certain decree written in three ways : in Greek, 
which could be easily read ; in popular Egyptian, or de- 
motic writing ; and in the writing of Egyptian priests — 
hieroglyphics. As all three versions were almost unin- 
jured, — being carved in very hard stone, — this inscrip- 
tion afforded the long-sought key for recovering the art of 
deciphering hieroglyphics. Still, this art was perfected 
only after long and patient study on the part of the 
French archaeologist Champollion (shaN-pol-yoN') and 
other noted scientists. 

A year after the peace of Luneville with Austria, Bona- 
parte signed the famous treaty of Amiens (a-myaN') with 
England, whereby the English pledged themselves to re- 
store Malta to the Knights of St. John. But their failure 
to keep this promise, as we shall see, soon led to a renewal 
of the war, so this peace can be regarded as only an 
armistice. 

Bonaparte, having ended warfare for the time being. 



THE CONSULATE (1799-1804) 159 

triumphantly declared, " Now, I shall give myself to the 
administration of France ! " That resolution was to bear 
very good fruits, for, as one writer says, " The genius of 
the First Consul was as marvelous in peace as in war, and 
he applied himself with unwearied labor to the promotion 
of internal prosperity in France. Day by day decrees 
were issued which repressed some abuse, conferred some 
benefit, commanded some useful public work ; and soon 
the face of the land was renewed and society was quickened 
and refashioned by his touch. The emigres were wel- 
comed back if they chose to come ; public instruction was 
improved, — though still separated from rehgion ; the gov- 
ernment of the provinces was organized anew ; industry, 
commerce, agriculture, arts, and science began to flourish 
once more ; and roads, fortresses, and harbors were re- 
paired and strengthened." 

Meanwhile a committee of learned men appointed by 
Bonaparte had long been working to provide a complete 
system of good and uniform laws for the whole country. 
He had directed them to select all that was good in former 
codes, making a new and practical one, in which each 
clause was to be short, simple, and clear. When the com- 
mittee made its report, Bonaparte presided at the meetings 
of a council which revised the new code, and himself sug- 
gested many very wise changes. As a result, his great 
code of laws preserves most that was excellent in previous 
codes, although much modified by his love of brevity, and 
his practical views, for he used to say, *' Every good must 
have common sense for its foundation. " He was so justly 
proud of this piece of legal work, that he once declared, 
" I shall go down to posterity with the code in my hand ! " 



i6o 



MODERN FRANCE 



This code, which was issued in 1804, was called the Code 
Civile or the Code Napoleon, and was adopted by many 
countries besides France. Although slightly changed, 
much of the Code, to all intents and purposes, is still in 




Painting by Wilkie. 

Napoleon inducing the Pope to sign the Concordat. 

force in France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Italy, 
Louisiana, and many Spanish-American countries. 

It was in 1801 that arrangements were made to place 
the Church of France once more under the spiritual rule 
of the Pope. The treaty signed with him went by the name 
of the Concor'dat, and provided that the government 



THE CONSULATE (1799-1804) 161 

should pay the salaries of the clergy. To celebrate its 
final signature a Te Deum was sung on Easter Day at 
Notre Dame, Bonaparte being present with all his staff. 
Thus, six years after the ancient cathedral had been dese- 
crated by the worship of the Revolutionary goddess of 
Reason (see page 107), Bonaparte restored Catholicism, 
saying, " In reviving a religion which has always prevailed 
in the country, in giving liberty of exercising their worship 
to the majority, I shall satisfy every one." 



3>»^C 



XXXII. MURDER OF THE DUKE OF 
ENGHIEN 

IN the year 1802 Bonaparte — who had first been 
elected consul for ten years — had himself made 
consul for life, with the privilege of choosing his own 
successor. You must not imagine, however, that every 
one was perfectly satisfied to see Bonaparte at the head of 
affairs in France. There were — as there always are — 
discontented people, who fancied they ought to occupy his 
place. Besides, the Royalists, who had hoped that as soon 
as order was restored, Louis XVTII. might be recalled to 
France (as Charles 11. had been to England), were sorely 
disenchanted. 

As their remonstrances had no effect, sundry conspira- 
cies were formed during the Consulate to remove Bona- 
parte—the chief obstacle — out of their way. Once (in 
1800) an infernal machine was set off in a narrow street, 
through which the consul was to pass on his way to the 



i62 MODERN FRANCE 

opera ; but it went off just too late to injure him, although 
the explosion killed a large number of people. Three 
years later, a Vendee Royalist named Cadoudal(ca-doo-dal') 
headed a conspiracy, in which one of Napoleon's former 
friends, General Moreau, was slightly implicated. This 
general was exiled to America in punishment, while the 
leader and many others were beheaded. 

Even before the treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte had es- 
tablished a camp at Boulogne (boo-lon') as preparation 
for the old plan of invading England, which was then 
generally termed " perfidious Albion." Because the Eng- 
lish did not give up Malta as they had promised, and 
because Bonaparte firmly demanded that they do so, it 
seemed as if these preparations might soon be useful. 

Before one can make war successfully, however, money 
is a great consideration, and it was because he needed all 
the funds he could obtain to make war upon England, that 
the First Consul sold Louisiana to the United States 
government, for ^^15,000,000.^ Louisiana had belonged 
first to France, then to Spain, and had only recently been 
given back to her old allegiance ; but Bonaparte feared 
that England might seize this colony, and, besides, as he 
stated when making the sale : " It is for the interest of 
France that America should be great and strong. I read 
farther ahead in the future than you do. I am preparing 
avengers of my wrongs." 

Meantime, war had been going on in Haiti, which 
Toussaint L'Ouverture (too-saN' loo-ver-ttir'), "the Bona- 
parte of the Blacks," as he proudly styled himself, had 
proclaimed an independent republic. To recover posses- 

1 See Story of the Great Republic^ p. 57. 



THE CONSULATE (i 799-1804) 163 

sion of this rich colony, Bonaparte sent his brother-in-law 
thither with a strong army ; but after various ups and 
downs the French were defeated, and the negroes made 
good their independence. Toussaint L'Ouverture, how- 
ever, was made prisoner and conveyed to a dungeon in 
France, where — accustomed to a tropical climate — he 
died of cold and dampness after being imprisoned only a 
few months. 

It was in 1803 that war with England began again. In 
answer to Bonaparte's demands that Malta be surrendered, 
the English seized 1200 French and Batavian ships. 
Bonaparte immediately retaliated by seizing as prisoners 
of war some 10,000 peaceful English subjects who were 
then sojourning in France. 

In the following year, wishing " to strike terror in the 
hearts of the Bourbons even in London," and to put an end 
to the frequent conspiracies to restore them to the throne, 
Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the Duke of Enghien 
(aN-gaN'), the last of a younger branch of the Bourbon fam- 
ily (the Condes). This young prince was then in Germany, 
ten miles from the French frontier. Under the false pretext 
that he was involved in Cadoudal's conspiracy (page 162), 
Bonaparte ordered troops to cross the frontier, enter a 
neutral country, snatch the prince out of his bed, and 
bring him straight to a fortress near Paris. All was 
done exactly as the consul had ordered ; then, on the very 
night of his arrival, the duke was summoned before a 
court-martial, tried without being given time to produce 
witnesses, and condemned to be shot like a spy, before 
daylight, in the castle moat ! 

Such a cruel deed of retaliation, which robbed a noble 




Paintin, ,y Graves. ^^^^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^f Enghien. » 
(164) 



THE CONSULATE (1799- 1804) 165 

family of its last scion, and laid an indelible stain on 
Bonaparte's fame, was condemned by every one. Talley- 
rand remarked in his cynical way, " It is worse than 
a crime ; it is a blunder! " Pitt, the great English states- 
man, said, " Bonaparte has now done himself more mis- 
chief than we have done him since the last declaration 
of war." 

Still, crime as it was, the French in general did not re- 
sent it so deeply as other nations expected. On the con- 
trary, and as if better to show their admiration for their 
hero and savior from anarcjiy, three days later they again 
offered Bonaparte the crown which he had already once, 
at least, refused. It was in May, at St. Cloud, — where 
the First Consul was wont to spend his summers, — that a 
deputation appeared, saying, " Citizen First Consul, you 
are founding a new era, but you must make it lasting ; 
brilliancy is nothing without duration ! " When, in reply, 
Bonaparte invited them to make their whole thought 
known, the deputation replied, " The Senate thinks it is 
of the utmost interest to the French people to intrust 
the government of the Republic to Napoleon Bonaparte, 
Hereditary Emperor." 

Although this invitation corresponded exactly with his 
secret wishes, Bonaparte made believe to hesitate, and it 
was only after the Senate's wish had been seconded by a 
majority of three million votes in its favor, that Bonaparte 
really became *' Napoleon L, Emperor of the French." 
This title was suggested, both because the word ** king " 
was still distasteful to Revolutionists, and also because 
" emperor," like "consul," was a reminder of glorious old 
Roman times. 



1 66 MODERN FRANCE 

XXXIII. THE FIRST EMPIRE 

THE Empire having been proclaimed at St. Cloud on 
the 1 8th of May, 1804, Bonaparte adopted the usual 
royal and imperial custom, signing henceforth only his first 
name. Napoleon. He also proceeded to rearrange things 
to suit his new dignity, but postponed his coronation until 
December, so that it might be celebrated with more pomp 
and grandeur than had ever yet been displayed. 

As " hereditary emperor," Napoleon felt that his rela- 
tives — who were always greedy for money and honors — 
should share in his good fortune. His mother, Letitia 
Bonaparte, henceforth known as Madam Mother (Madame 
Mere), and his brothers and sisters — who could now 
revel in the titles of princes and princesses — all received 
large annual incomes, which the younger people spent 
lavishly, while the mother, mindful of times when money 
had been scarce, hoarded for a possible needy future. Of 
this stern old lady Napoleon once said, " It is to my mother 
and to her good example that I owe everything;" but she 
disapproved of this new grandeur, and once when her son 
playfully held out his hand to her for a court salute, she 
exclaimed indignantly : " Not so, my son ! It is your duty 
to kiss the hand of her who gave you life! " 

All Napoleon's family gave him a great deal of trouble, 
as you will see, but it was only his mother and Lucien — 
the brother who once threatened to kill him if he attacked 
the liberties of the Republic — who thoroughly disapproved 
of his new title and elevation. Besides, an estrangement 
occurred because Napoleon tried to interfere in Lucien's 
marriage affairs; and as the mother sided with Lucien in 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 



167 



all their quarrels, she was not present at the coronation, 
although Napoleon had her portrait inserted in the picture 
by the great court artist, David. 

The companions in arms of Napoleon, sixteen in number, 
received the title of '' Marshals of the Empire," their ener- 
getic master telling them : " Succeed ! I judge men by 
success ! " Talleyrand, Napoleon's former fellow-consuls, 
and other leading civilians were also made prominent mem- 
bers of the newly organized imperial court, which was reg- 
ulated according to many of the old rules of etiquette, 
modified, of course, to suit more advanced times. 

While extensive preparations were being made for the 
grand coronation. Napoleon and Josephine set out on a 
journey, visiting the camp at Boulogne, where the new 




Dravnng by Raffet. 



Napoleon at Boulogne. 



i68 MODERN FRANCE 

emperor was received by the mayor with the pompous 
speech, *'God created Napoleon and then rested from his 
work ! " Here, too, Napoleon reviewed " the Grand Army," 
sitting on Dag'obert's throne^ and distributed Legion of 
Honor decorations, before proceeding to Cologne (co-l6n'), 
inspecting improvements, forts, factories, — everything, in 
short, — on his way. 

Anxious to imitate Charlemagne, his favorite hero, and 
to consecrate his elevation in the eyes of Catholic Europe, 
Napoleon induced the Pope to come to Paris for the corona- 
tion ceremony, — a favor granted solely because the restora- 
tion of Catholic religion in France was due mainly to him. 
Pope Pius Vn., with his train of cardinals and priests, 
was welcomed at Fontainebleau (foN-ten-blo') by Napoleon 
in person, both host and guest little suspecting that they 
would a few years later assume the parts of jailer and 
prisoner in the selfsame palace. 

On December 2, 1804, the court assembled in the 
Tuileries in gorgeous array, to await the appearance of 
Napoleon and Josephine. The emperor wore a long white 
satin robe embroidered with golden bees, — token of the 
old Frankish kings, — his royal-purple (red) velvet mantle, 
lined with ermine and weighing eighty pounds, being 
strewn with them also. His head was encircled by a 
wreath of golden laurel leaves like those worn by Roman 
emperors of old, and the new army standards were sur- 
mounted by golden eagles, which were to be the favorite 
emblem of the man so often compared to that soaring bird. 
Josephine, also in white satin, and with a royal mantle 
whose train was borne by her daughter and by Napoleon's 

1 S^ory of Old France, p. 6i. 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 



169 



sisters, was further adorned with an exquisite lace ruff, and 
with jewels of great price and magnificence. 

In the midst of all this splendor, Napoleon suddenly 
caught a glimpse of a lawyer who had once tried to 
dissuade Josephine 
from marrying an 
impecunious officer 
by saying, "Madam, 
he has nothing but a 
soldier's sword and 
cape ! " Napoleon 
now reminded him of 
that remark by point- 
ing significantly to 
his jeweled sword 
and royal robes and 
saying proudly, " Sir, 
behold the soldier's 
cape and sword ! " 

In a dazzHng char- 
iot of gold and plate 
glass, — bearing the 
imperial monogram 
" N," and drawn by 
eight white horses, — escorted by court and army in festive 
array. Napoleon and Josephine drove in state to Notre Dame. 
There, after the Pope had duly anointed him and conse- 
crated his crown. Napoleon — who refused to be crowned 
by any one — placed the jeweled circle on his own head, 
and then crowned Josephine as she gracefully knelt before 
him. 




Painting by Gerard. 

Napoleon in Coronation Robes. 




(i7o) 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 171 

Of course, all manner of festivities and rejoicings fol- 
lowed, but Napoleon and Josephine soon left Paris to 
hasten to Italy, where the Cisalpine Republic, having 
asked to become a kingdom, wished to bestow upon Napo- 
leon the title of King of Italy. This second coronation 
took place in the beautiful cathedral of Milan, where 
Napoleon put on the old Lombard iron crown (a broad 
band of gold and jewels inclosing a narrow band of iron, 
said to be fashioned from one of the nails of the Crucifix- 
ion), repeating impressively the time-honored words, "God 
has given it to me; woe betide him who touches it ! " 

Still, too many important matters were calling elsewhere 
for Napoleon to tarry long in Italy; so, after creating the 
Order of the Iron Crown, he gratified Josephine and 
pleased himself by naming his stepson, Eugene de Beau- 
harnais. Viceroy of Italy. Next, having annexed Genoa 
and part of the Ligurian Republic to France, the emperor 
divided other parts of Italy into duchies, which became 
dependencies of the new French Empire. 



-»o>»=Io«- 



XXXIV. THE BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ 

THAT an ''upstart" {parvenu) should dare assume 
the title of Emperor, and that a soldier should 
wear a royal crown, seemed so monstrous to aristocratic 
Europe, that England, Russia, Sweden, and Austria soon 
banded together in a coalition against France, — the third 
since royalty had been abolished. On hearing this news, 
Napoleon hastened back to Boulogne, hoping to be able 
to carry out at last the long-cherished plan of attacking 



172 MODERN FRANCE 

England. But before England could be reached, the 
French had to cross the Channel with their armies. The 
troops assembled at Boulogne were so numerous that 
many vessels would be necessary to transport them, and 
such vessels, of course, needed to be escorted and protected 
by French men-of-war. Then, too, before the army could 
start, favorable winds were needed to swell the sails, for 
although Fulton had already experimented with a steamboat 
on the Seine (san), and he and Papin (pa-paN^) had offered 
their inventions to the French government, such means of 
propulsion were still considered wildly impractical. So 
also seemed the proposal to go in balloons, or to dig a 
tunnel under the sea so as to enable the soldiers to march 
across, although airships and submarine tunnels are now 
no longer novelties. 

Meantime the English, alarmed by the preparations at 
Boulogne, made sundry brave attempts to enter that port 
and destroy th,^ '' nutshells" intended to convey hostile 
armaments to their shores. They also watched and pur- 
sued the French fleet of warships, which, hoping to give 
them the slip, dodged about the Atlantic, even sailing as 
far as the West Indies. The trick succeeded, but, on the 
return home, the French admiral made the mistake of stop- 
ping for repairs at Ca'diz in Spain, where his fleet was soon 
bottled up by the wary foe. Knowing it useless to attempt to 
cross "that ditch" — as Napoleon contemptuously termed 
the English Channel — save under cover of a strong fleet, 
the French emperor wrathfully put off the invasion of Eng- 
land. Then, learning that the Austrians were attacking his 
ally, Bavaria, he determined to carry the war thither. In an 
incredibly short time, therefore, the Boulogne host marched 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804- 1814) 173 

eastward and at Ulm surrounded the Austrian general, who 
was forced to surrender with a large army ! This was a 
grand triumph for the French soldiers, who, full of admira- 
tion for the general they adored, spoke jokingly of their 
long march, thus, '* He has found another way of making 
war ; he no longer makes us fight with our arms, but with 
our legs ! " 

On the very day after the surrender at Ulm, the French 
fleet was almost annihilated in the great naval battle of 
Trafalgar^ where the English admiral Nelson lost his 
life,^ and the French admiral Villeneuve (veel-nev') com- 
mitted suicide rather than face Napoleon after such a dis- 
aster. The destruction of the French navy, of course, 
ended all chance of invading England ; there was nothing, 
therefore, to prevent Napoleon's hurrying on to beat the 
armies of the Austrian and Russian emperors, before the 
Prussian king could make up his mind to join them. 

As he passed some Austrian wounded. Napoleon's cordial 
salute, " Honor to the brave," showed that he could put him- 
self in the enemy's place, although he was even then hurry- 
ing on '' to conclude this campaign by a stroke of thunder ! " 
His plan was to take Vienna, — where, the emperor hav- 
ing fled, resistance proved slight, — and to attack the al- 
lies, who stationed themselves on an advantageous height 
at Aus'terlitz. Napoleon, on learning this, determined to 
lure part of them from their position so as to take posses- 
sion of it himself. His plans proved so successful that 
when morning broke, — on the first anniversary of his 
coronation (December 2, 1805), — all was favorably ar- 
ranged for the ''Battle of the Three Emperors," as it has 

1 Story of the English, p. 313. 



174 



MODERN FRANCE 



also been called. Even the fog, which had hitherto veiled 
the foe's movements, was suddenly dispelled by the rays of 
the rising sun, which Napoleon hailed as ''the sun of 
Austerlitz," an omen of good luck. 

The soldiers, inspired by his triumphant assertion, '' That 
army is mine! " and fired by one of his stirring speeches, filed 
rapidly past him, begging him with rough devotion to keep 
out of danger. As Napoleon had foreseen, the allies were 
routed, and as some of them fled over a frozen lake, his 
gunners pointed their cannon so that the heavy balls broke 
up the ice and the fugitives perished by drowning. By 
skillful maneuvering and brave fighting Napoleon beat 
his opponents so thoroughly that even one of the seasoned 
Austrian generals sadly declared he had " no conception 
of such a defeat! " 

As for the French, they were jubilant, and the sol- 
diers present never forgot Napoleon's laudatory speech : 
'* Soldiers, I am proud of you. When you reenter your 
homes, you need but say, ' I was at Austerlitz ! ' and you 
will be welcomed with the cry, ' There is a hero ! ' " To 
his wife Napoleon wrote on this occasion: '' I have beaten 
the Russian and Austrian armies, commanded by the two 
emperors. I am a little tired." But such was his marvel- 
ous endurance that a very few hours' sleep always sufficed 
to restore his strength. 

This defeat at Austerlitz not only crippled the Austrian 
and Russian forces, but determined the Prussians, who 
were about to join them, to make friends with Napoleon 
instead. Hoping to obtain better terms of peace, the 
beaten Emperor of Austria now begged for an interview 
with Napoleon, who received him by a camp fire, saying 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 175 

playfully, *' Here is the palace your Majesty compels me 
to occupy ! " But after Austerlitz there was no further 
attempt on the part of this emperor to treat Napoleon 
otherwise than as an equal, and it was by the light of this 
bivouac that they settled the preliminaries for the peace 
of Press^burg, by which Austria gave up Tyr'ol and the 
Venetian territories. The Emperor of Austria soon after 
relinquished the title of '' Emperor of the Holy Roman 
Empire" (really, Emperor of Germany)- — ^ which thus 
came to an end after existing a little more than a thousand 
years, 800-1806, He retained only the title ''Hereditary 
Emperor of Austria," while many of the other German 
states formerly in the Empire now united to form the " Con- 
federation of the Rhine," under the protection of France. 

Seizing the excuse that while he was closely engaged in 
Austria, Naples had started to attack the French in Italy, 
Napoleon now declared, " The dynasty of Naples has 
ceased to reign," and sent an army to take possession of 
the kingdom of Naples, which he soon after bestowed 
upon his eldest brother, Joseph. Then, to his third brother, 
Louis, — who had married Josephine's daughter Hortense 
three years before, — Napoleon awarded the throne of 
Holland, and upon his sisters and marshals he conferred 
numerous duchies in Italy and Germany ; for he knew the 
French would resent any new division of their soil, and 
disliked any addition to the ranks of their aristocracy. 

On his way home from Pressburg, Napoleon stopped at 
Mu'nich, where he announced the suppression of the old 
RepubUcan Calendar, and witnessed the marriage of his 
stepson, Eugene, to a daughter of the King of Bavaria, 
his faithful ally in the recent war. On this occasion he 



176 



MODERN FRANCE 



formally promised that Eugene should have the throne of 
Italy if he himself should die without a direct heir. 

On returning to Paris, the emperor received a great 
ovation, the Senate bestowing upon him the title of '' the 




The Column of Austerlitz. 



Great." Then, too, the " Column of Austerlitz " (or of 
the " Grand Army " ) was fashioned from the cannon won 
in battle, the .bronze spiral of bas-reliefs around it repre- 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 177 

senting various episodes in the campaign. This column, 
crowned by a statue of Napoleon, was erected in the center 
of the Vendome (vaN-dom') Square, and is hence known also 
as the " Column Vendome." It still stands on the original 
spot, although its existence has been sorely endangered 
several times, and although, as we shall see, it was once 
actually thrown down by an angry mob ! 



3jOic 



XXXV. ENTRY INTO BERLIN 

NAPOLEON'S distribution of crowns and duchies 
proved another severe shock to conservative Euro- 
pean monarchs, who argued that " if a king of royal lineage 
like Ferdinand of Naples can be summarily deposed, and 
a commoner like Joseph Bonaparte placed on the throne 
in his stead, no kingdom in Europe will henceforth be 
secure! " To prevent a similar fate from overtaking them, 
they felt that all sovereigns should band together against 
this bold innovator and chastise him for his presumption. 
This was the general verdict, and it gave rise to the 
Fourth Coalition (1806), to which England contributed 
funds, while Prussia and Russia did the main part of the 
fighting. Napoleon, who had been watching proceedings 
closely, and had made ready for war by collecting forces 
and supplies in the states of his German allies, now 
deemed it best that operations should begin before the 
allies could make further preparations. With that purpose 
in view, he had his court journal publish such offensive 
articles about the Prussians in general, and about their 
beautiful Queen Louise in particular, that every loyal 



178 



MODERN FRANCE 



Prussian rose up in wrath against him. Even before war 
was openly declared, Napoleon was on his way to attack 
the Prussians, exciting his ignorant soldiers the while by 
insisting that the foe was ''insulting the victors of Auster- 
litz ! " 

By masterly tactics, Napoleon managed to place him- 
self in the rear of two Prussian armies, and to attack one 
of them with overwhelming forces at Jena (ya'na) — where 




Painting by Vernet. 



Napoleon at Jena. 



the queen herself had been reviewing and encouraging the 
Prussian troops. Here Napoleon, torch in hand, himself 
superintended the placing of his guns, and quickly won 
another of his great victories. The picture of Napoleon 
at Jena, by Vernet, shows the emperor at the moment 
when, reviewing his troops, he overhears an impatient 
soldier whispering urgently, " Forward, forward ! " To 
these words the great general severely replies : " What's 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 179 

this? It can be only a beardless youth who tries to pre- 
scribe what I shall do. Let him wait until he has com- 
manded in twenty pitched battles, before pretending to 
give me any advice ! " 

On the same day one of Napoleon's generals defeated 
the other Prussian army (at Auerstadt, a few miles north 
of Jena), so Prussia's strength was annihilated for a time. 
In spite of the heroic courage and dauntless patriotism of 
the people the French soon gained possession of the large 
fortress of Magdeburg (maK'de-boorK), and at the end of 
a three weeks' campaign entered Ber'lin as conquerors. 

This triumphal entrance of the French army into BerHn, 
and the ungenerous conduct of the emperor toward people 
and queen, rankled sorely in Prussia for many a year, as 
did the fact that he bore off to Paris, as a trophy, the sword 
which lay on Frederick the Great's coffin, and which had 
once gloriously carved the fortunes of the country. Be- 
sides, Napoleon made the vanquished pay for the war, 
vindictively saying in regard to the Prussian nobles, *' I 
will make them so poor that they shall be obhged to beg 
their bread ! " This, as you perceive, was not chivalrous, 
but Napoleon was truthful and generous only when it 
suited his ends to appear so, and proudly considered him- 
self the rest of the time above observing the usual laws of 
conduct and morality. Still, he rewarded the Germans 
who helped him, by making the Saxon duke a king, and 
by organizing properly the Confederation of the Rhine. 

It was while in BerHn that Napoleon devised a plan to 
ruin England without invading that country. This con- 
sisted in forbidding any of the continental European coun- 
tries to allow her ships in their ports, to buy any of her 



i8o MODERN FRANCE 

goods, or to sell her any supplies. As England is largely a 
manufacturing country, and depends upon selling her manu- 
factured products abroad, — getting raw materials and food 
in exchange, — this blockade, if strictly carried out, meant 
little less than ruin and starvation for her. To help in 
making the blockade strict. Napoleon decreed that all 
Englishmen found in continental countries should be made 
prisoners of war, and that no letter written in English or 
addressed to any Englishman should be allowed to pass 
into or out of the continent. Such was the fear Napoleon 
inspired that nearly all the European nations in time sub- 
mitted, or pretended to submit, to this '' Continental Sys- 
tem," or " Continental Blockade." As a result, England 
was somewhat crippled, and the continental countries also 
were injured by the interference with trade that had been 
profitable to both parties ; but so many English goods were 
smuggled in that the blockade proved a failure. 

It was also at Berlin that Napoleon performed an act of 
spectacular generosity in favor of the German governor of 
the city. Von Hatz'feld, who had been left there in com- 
mand on condition that he should be loyal to Napoleon, 
rather than to his own country. But a letter written by 
Von Hatzfeld to the Prussians, betraying some of Na- 
poleon's plans, accidentally fell into the French emperor's 
hands. The governor's wife, deeming her husband in- 
nocent, yet knowing that he would be shot if court- 
martialed, fell at Napoleon's feet, wildly beseeching his 
intervention, until he showed her the letter proving her 
husband's guilt. Seeing the poor woman almost swoon at 
this revelation. Napoleon suddenly gave the letter to her, 
bidding her cast it into the fire with her own hand, thus 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) • 181 

destroying the only proof of her husband's treachery. You 
can imagine with what joy the wife obeyed, and how grate- 
ful she felt thereafter to the man to whom her husband 
owed his life ! 

•o5»Co« 

XXXVI. DEATH OF QUEEN LOUISE 

WHEN the Prussians were conquered, Napoleon set 
out to attack his other enemies, the Russians, al- 
though winter had already set in, and his army had to 
march through snow and slush across Poland, suffering 
untold hardships before it could reach War'saw. Some 
twelve years before this, the ancient kingdom of Poland 
had been conquered and its territory divided among 
Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Now, the French were 
everywhere warmly welcomed by the Poles, who, hoping 
Napoleon would restore their national independence, joined 
him in hosts, and helped him win the desperate battle of 
Eylau (l^lou, 1807), when he was attacked by Russian 
forces twice as large as his own. 

While Napoleon was still in winter camp in Poland, 
Alexander I., the Russian emperor, collected new forces, 
which Napoleon routed the next summer in the battle of 
Friedland (freed'lant, 1807). Then, believing it unwise to 
continue the struggle any longer, Alexander sued for peace, 
and agreed to meet Napoleon on a raft in the river Nie'men, 
near TiFsit, to discuss terms. The two armies, drawn up 
on either bank, saw the emperors meet and embrace. We 
are informed that Alexander opened the conversation on 
this historic occasion by exclaiming, " I hate the English 
as much as you do ! " 




(l82) 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 183 

" In that case peace is assured," replied Napoleon, whose 
main object at present was to induce Russia to join in the 
Continental Blockade. 

In the interview on the raft, Alexander not only gave up 
a part of his share of Poland, but faithfully promised ** to 
close his door to the English," as well as to pay part of 
the costs of the war, while Napoleon won his opponent's 
heart by proposing to divide the world with him, leaving 
him to win lands from Sweden and Turkey. 

While Alexander and Napoleon were thus conversing, the 
King of Prussia was uneasily riding up and down on the 
bank, conscious that his ally and his foe were settling his 
fate. Such was indeed the case, for in the treaty of Tilsit 
( 1 807) it was decided that the Prussian land s west of the Elbe 
should henceforth form the new kingdom of Westpha'lia 
for Napoleon's brother Jerome, while the duchy of War- 
saw, which was to be governed by the King of Saxony, 
should be carved principally from Prussia's share of Po- 
land. Thus, you see, the Poles' hopes were only partly 
fulfilled, for instead of restoring the kingdom of Poland 
and giving back all the lands seized by its three power- 
ful neighbors. Napoleon allowed Austria — with which he 
was then on friendly terms — to retain all her share, and 
took only Prussia's and a part of Russia's. 

Having thus settled matters with Russia, Napoleon next 
met the King and Queen of Prussia at Tilsit, the latter 
having come thither in hopes of helping her husband se- 
cure better terms. But, whereas her grace and beauty 
might have won concessions from Napoleon before his 
mind was fully made up, he always proved unchangeable, 
once a decision had been made. We are told that in the 




Painting by Grosse. 

Napoleon receiving Queen Louise of Prussia. 
(184) 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 185 

course of this momentous interview, Napoleon offered the 
lovely young queen a rose, which she took, asking archly 
(with reference to the fortress which Prussia was especially 
anxious to recover), ''With Magdeburg, Sire?" But he 
sternly replied, " Madam, it is mine to give, yours to ac- 
cept what I offer!" This ungallant answer proved the 
" last straw," for the delicate young queen was already so 
worn out with anxiety for her husband and country, and 
was grieving so sorely over the sufferings of her people, 
that she passed away (1810), saying (like Mary of England 
in regard to Calais^), " Were they to open my heart, they 
would find ' Magdeburg ' engraved upon it ! " 

This Louise of Prussia left two sons, one of whom was 
to be made the first Emperor of United Germany, after 
cruelly avenging her wrongs upon the French, as you will 

see. 

— »o}»:o« — 

XXXVII. JEROME'S MARRIAGES 

ONCE more Napoleon returned to Paris, so^full of his 
own importance, and so sure of himself, that he 
now became indeed more despotic than any Bourbon had 
ever dared to be. His wishes were supreme in every 
branch of the government, and while he retained a Senate 
and a Legislative Corps, they seemed to exist only to vote 
him soldiers and money as he demanded them. But 
everything seemed so prosperous and serene that France 
deemed her future fully assured. 

Such was Napoleon's excessive vanity at this epoch that 
no one dared address him save in words of fulsome praise 

1 Story of Old France, p. 248. 



1 86 



MODERN FRANCE 



and adulation. This arrogance became simply unendura- 
ble to Talleyrand, who, although a Royalist, had hitherto 
served the Empire with ability and zeal. Tt is true that he 
had been rewarded by wealth and titles, but when he ven- 
tured to show that he thought a government unsafe which 
depended only on success for its existence, he grievously 
incurred Napoleon's displeasure. In fact, the emperor be- 




The Triumphal Arch of the Star. 

came so unbearably rude to his minister, that the latter re- 
venged himself by saying, " What a pity it is that so great 
a prince should be so ill-bred! " and in 1809 actually left 
his service. 

It was on his return from the glorious campaign of 1807 
that Napoleon planned the erection of a " Temple of Glory" 
— now the Church of the Madeleine (mad-Ian') — besides 
erecting a triumphal arch in the great court between the 
palaces of the Louvre and Tuileries (Arche du Carrousel) 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 187 

and planning another, the Triumphal Arch of the Star, at 
the end of the beautiful drive of the Champs Elysees 
(shaN za-lee-za'), or Elysian Fields. From this arch. Napo- 
leon planned long avenues to radiate like the rays from a 
star, the principal one bearing the name of " the Grand 
Army," and the others those of his devoted marshals. It 
is, however, a disputed matter whether this triumphal arch 
derives its name from Napoleon's pet superstition concern- 
ing "his star," from this plan in regard to the avenues, or 
from the Order of the Star in the Legion of Honor, which 
the emperor founded. 

Very soon after his return from Tilsit, Napoleon ordered 
the marriage of his youngest brother Jerome — then 
twenty-two — with the beautiful princess of VVurt'temberg. 
Now, you must know that Jerome Bonaparte had journeyed, 
as a youth, to the United States, where he had married, at 
eighteen, a Miss Patterson of Baltimore. When this mar- 
riage took place, Jerome was, of course, under age, and 
such a union in France, without the consent of parents 
or guardians, is considered illegal. Jerome's family were 
furious about it, and Napoleon, after becoming emperor, 
became anxious to break this tie so that his brother, by 
espousing a princess, might win a royal alliance for the 
family. At first, boy as he was, Jerome refused to give up 
his young wife, but Napoleon artfully contrived to separate 
him from the lady, and then threatened or bribed him into 
compliance with his arbitrary wishes. 

At Napoleon's order, therefore, the Senate declared Je- 
rome's American marriage null, and offered the lady a 
sum of money to renounce all further right to the name 
of Bonaparte. Although she nobly refused, and rightly 



i88 MODERN FRANCE 

persisted in considering herself Jerome's lawful wife, the 
French emperor never paid any heed to her or her chil- 
dren's claims, but concluded the royal marriage just as 
was planned. Then, after a ceremonious presentation at 
the imperial court, Jerome and his new wife proceeded to 
Westphalia, where they began their joint reign with much 
splendor. 

As Napoleon's will was now supreme, he next proceeded 
to dispose of things in Italy, and joined Tus'cany to France. 
Then, becoming incensed against the Pope for not observ- 
ing the Continental Blockade, he suddenly revoked the 
gift which Charlemagne had made to the Holy See. For 
this and other reasons the Pope promptly excommunicated 
Napoleon, who, in return, had the Pope arrested, confined 
at various places, and finally brought captive to Fontaine- 
bleau, where he was to remain until 1814. 

Meantime, so many countries had joined the Continental 
Blockade, that England had no important open market in 
Europe save in Portugal. As it proved easy to smuggle 
goods thence to all parts of the continent. Napoleon 
sternly bade Portugal join the blockade, also. When he 
heard that this imperial and imperious mandate was not 
immediately obeyed. Napoleon declared, " The House of 
Braganza has ceased to exist," and sent Junot at the head 
of an army to Portugal with orders to take possession of 
the country. The Portuguese royal family, not strong 
enough to resist such a foe, fled from Lisbon to Brazil, 
where the House of Braganza continued "to exist" and 
rule ; but, after their hasty flight, Portugal itself fell an 
easy prey to the French. 

Next, under the pretext of settling a quarrel in the 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-18 14) 189 

Spanish royal family, and of quelling riots caused thereby, 
French armies entered Spain, and Napoleon induced King 
Charles IV. and the crown prince Ferdinand to meet him 
at Bayonne (ba-yon'), where he either tricked or bribed them 
both to cede the crown of Spain to his brother Joseph. 
Having already been appointed King of Naples, Joseph was 
now ordered to give that kingdom to Murat, — Napoleon's 
friend and the husband of his sister Carohne, — so as to 
mount the throne of Spain, But it is one thing to become 
king, and quite another to remain so. The proud Span- 
iards, not liking to have a monarch forced upon them, 
soon rebelled, and drove Joseph out of Madrid'. There- 
upon, Napoleon promptly sent troops to restore him and 
reduce the Spaniards to obedience. But the English just 
as promptly sent troops to aid the Spaniards, having 
previously helped Portugal to drive away her French 
rulers. The resulting war, waged by the Spanish, Por- 
tuguese, and English against the French, is known as 
the Ibe'rian or Peninsular Campaign, and lasted from 
1808 to 1 8 14. This fighting proved excellent training for 
officers and soldiers, and enabled them to win great victories 
later on. 

Napoleon, who had meantime gone to an important con- 
ference at Er'furt, where he renewed his vows of friend- 
ship with Alexander, dazzled every one there with his 
magnificence. To entertain his guests, the great French 
tragedian Talma' was brought from Paris to play before 
"a pitful of kings," and it was here, too, that Napoleon 
had a memorable interview with Goethe (ge'te) and 
Wieland (vee'lant), the greatest German writers of the 
time. 



190 



MODERN FRANCE 



XXXVIII. JOSEPHINE DIVORCED 



THE gayeties of Erfurt once over, Napoleon proceeded 
to Spain, and began his campaign by a few victories 
which replaced Joseph on the throne at Madrid. But be- 
fore the conquest of Spain could be completed, he received 
such alarming news from home that he hastily departed, 
leaving behind him some of his best generals and troops, 
with instructions to " drive the EngHsh into the sea." The 
French in Spain had to contend with English armies under 
Sir John Moore and Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) 
in a number of pitched battles, and to wrest from the 
Spaniards themselves several towns by costly sieges ; they 
were, besides, constantly worried by a species of guer- 
rilla warfare, which the mountainous nature of the country 
made easy for the natives. The constant drain of men 
and money demanded by this war, proved, in time. Napo- 
leon's ruin, he himself saying, later on, " It divided my 
strength, opened a way for the EngHsh, and injured my 
reputation throughout Europe." But he saw all this too 
late, although Talleyrand had predicted that it would prove 
" the beginning of the end." 

Having left Spain, — never to return there, — Napoleon 
posted northwards ; but whereas he generally traveled 
rapidly in a coach ingeniously fitted out so he could work 
even while journeying, on this occasion he rode horseback, 
eighty-five miles in five hours, using, of course, a num- 
ber of horses, which he changed at various points on the 
route, for his only fast gait was a mad gallop. Napoleon's 
haste was due to the fact that Austria, deeming him safely 
occupied elsewhere, had suddenly thought this a fine op- 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 



191 



portunity to take her revenge. She was encouraged in this 
view by England, — Napoleon's inveterate foe, so a Fifth 
Coalition had been planned ; but when she now invaded 
Bavaria, it was only to be confronted and beaten, to her 
intense surprise and dismay, in five battles on five suc- 
cessive days, by Napoleon and his allies of the Confeder- 




Fainting by Gaulherot. 



Napoleon wounded at Ratisbon. 



ation of the Rhine. At Rat'isbon, on the fifth day. Na- 
poleon was wounded in the foot by a spent ball. The 
news of this injury caused such excitement and despair 
among the men that the emperor hardly waited until the 
bandage was fastened, before he remounted and reappeared 
among the troops, by whom he was madly cheered. 

The road now being clear, Napoleon marched on to 




(192) 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 193 

Vienna, which he entered for the second time in triumph. 
Then, on the way to attack the main Austrian army, the 
French troops distinguished themselves greatly at the 
crossing of the Danube, where bridges had to be built 
under great difficulties, and where was fought a bloody 
battle (Aspern). Finally came another famous victory at 
Wagram (va'gram), after which Napoleon took up his abode 
at Schonbrunn (shen-broon'), where he barely escaped the 
dagger of an assassin, and where he little suspected his son 
would spend his last days more than a score of years later. 

Meanwhile, the Tyrol, which Napoleon had wrested from 
Austria and bestowed upon Bavaria, was in revolt against her 
new rulers. Under Andreas Ho'fer and a few other brave 
peasant leaders, these mountaineers expelled the Bavarians 
and heroically defended their beloved country step by step. 
Army after army sent against them met defeat, but in the 
end the Tyrolians were overcome. Hofer himself was 
taken and slain (18 10) with some thirty other patriots, whose 
fame will endure forever in that picturesque region. 

The war between Austria and France was ended by the 
peace of Vienna (1809), confirming previous treaties, but 
giving the Illyr'ian Provinces (Istria, Dalmatia, etc.) to 
France, and some smaller territories to Napoleon's aUies. 
Such was the fame Napoleon won by these repeated tri- 
umphs, that we are told " he looked like one walking in a 
halo of glory," and he became such a popular idol, that 
" France gave herself to him, absorbed herself in him, and 
seemed at one time no longer to think save through him!" 

Napoleon, Hke his admirers, now began to believe that 
he was the only man who could make and keep France 
great and prosperous, and the thought that the time would 



194 



MODERN FRANCE 



surely come when he would die, filled his own and many 
other hearts with nameless fears. As he and Josephine had 
no children, the Senate had conferred upon Napoleon, with 
the title of emperor, the right to adopt a successor ; if 
Napoleon had no son, and adopted none, the throne was 
to go to certain of his brothers and their sons. 

The succession was a dehcate matter, for while Na- 
poleon would have liked to name his stepson, Eugene de 
Beauharnais, he knew perfectly well that his family would 
never countenance such a choice. For a brief time, there- 
fore, Napoleon thought of adopting and training a nephew, 

— the son of his brother Louis and stepdaughter Hortense, 

— but this child died young, and the emperor's affections 
never seemed to center upon any of his other nephews 
in the same way. Meantime, many people did not scruple 
to suggest that he divorce Josephine and marry again to 
secure an heir — a suggestion which Napoleon repudiated 
indignantly at first, but decided to adopt shortly after sign- 
ing the treaty of Vienna. 

When told at Fontainebleau what sacrifice she was 
expected to make for the sake of France, poor Josephine 
swooned from grief ; but she was so brave and unselfish 
that, in spite of the fact that her heart was breaking, she 
finally consented to all Napoleon asked. Knowing that 
the captive Pope would never grant the desired divorce, the 
Senate and an ecclesiastical council were asked to pro- 
nounce it ; and, in the presence of Napoleon, of her two 
children, and of a few of the great dignitaries, Josephine 
signed the paper by which she consented to this separation 
from the man she loved. 

Then, still escorted by her devoted children, Josephine 




(195) 



196 • MODERN FRANCE 

withdrew to Malmaison (mal-me-zoN'), — a country house 
she had bought while Napoleon was in Egypt, — where, 
honored and admired as much as ever, still bearing the 
title of empress, and provided with a fine pension, she 
quietly spent her few remaining years. Napoleon called 
there to see her sometimes, but such interviews proved 
too painful for both to be frequent at first, and, after his 
second marriage, roused such jealous feelings in the breast 
of the new empress that they had to be discontinued. 
Until his divorce, Napoleon had been wonderfully success- 
ful, and because his luck turned shortly after his second 
marriage, and because the repudiation of Josephine was 
not viewed with favor by the people in general, it was later 
said, *' When Napoleon divorced himself from Josephine, 
he seemed to have divorced himself from his good genius."^ 

XXXIX. NAPOLEON'S SECOND MARRIAGE 

AFTER Josephine had left the Tuileries forever. Na- 
poleon found the palace so lonely that he removed 
to the Trianon, where nothing reminded him of his di- 
vorced wife. Then the question arose, Whom should he 
marry ? For a man in his position, a princess seemed the 
only suitable wife, and he first suggested a marriage with 
the sister of his friend Alexander, who asked for time to con- 
sider. Then the impatient Napoleon asked for the eldest 
daughter of the Austrian emperor, Maria Louisa, or Marie 
Louise, a girl of eighteen. The Austrian emperor and 
his minister Met'ternich, afraid to offend their former foe, 

1 See Guerber's Empresses of France, 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 197 

and anxious, besides, to secure lasting peace by this alliance, 
soon consented, so a marriage by proxy was celebrated in 
Vienna, before the new empress set out for France to join 
the husband she had never seen. 

Their first meeting was arranged to take place at the 
French castle where Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette 
had first met ; but Napoleon rode on to meet the carriage, 
which he unexpectedly entered at the last relay. Thus the 
imperial couple arrived together at the castle, whence they 
went on to St. Cloud the next day, and then, in the gilded 
coronation carriage, to Paris. We are told that they paused 
to hear speeches under a temporary arch at the head of 
the Champs Elysees, before driving on to the Tuileries for a 
state marriage ceremony in the Square Hall in the Louvre. 
Here great pomp was displayed, the emperor's sisters and 
Hortense bearing Marie Louise's train ; but the festive 
occasion was marred by Napoleon's wrath when he discov- 
ered that certain of the cardinals — who considered his 
divorce from Josephine invalid — were not present, as he 
had commanded. In his anger, the emperor banished 
these cardinals from court, and forbade them to wear their 
red robes in public until they had apologized ; that is why 
these prelates, who upheld their principles with great 
dignity, are known in history as " the Black Cardinals." 

Napoleon was more than double the age of the new 
empress, who was neither so graceful nor so gracious as 
her predecessor. To be sure, Marie Louise was only a girl 
at that time, but she never developed into so clever and 
charming a woman as Josephine, who had helped Napo- 
leon in every way to reach his present position and suc- 
cess, while the new wife was, on the contrary, to hamper 



198 MODERN FRANCE 

him before long. Still, at first, all proved rose-colored, 
and fetes were given everywhere to the imperial couple, 
who met nothing but cheers and adulation as they journeyed 
from place to place. 




Painting by Roitget. 

The Marriage of Napoleon and Marie Louise. 

This marriage took place in 18 10. During the same 
year, finding his brother Louis too devoted to the good of 
the Dutch to force them to ruin themselves by respecting 
the Continental Blockade, Napoleon arbitrarily removed 
him from the throne, and united Holland to France, saying 
playfully that it belonged by right to that country, for it 
was formed of '' the sediment of French rivers ! " 

That year, also, the Swedes persuaded their childless king 
to adopt Ber-na-dotte', one of Napoleon's old lieutenants, 
who, like Louis, quickly became too loyal to his adopted 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 199 

country to sacrifice its welfare to the emperor's ambitions. 
The dynasty founded by Bernadotte still reigns in Sweden. 

During this brief time of comparative peace, — war was 
still going on in Spain, — Napoleon was busy planning 
many new improvements, and visiting many factories, for 
he made it a point to encourage talent wherever he found 
it. To supply work for the various great artists of his 
day (David, Gros, Gerard, Guerin, Prudhon), the vain 
emperor had them picture his battles, coronation, and 
marriage; he and the two empresses sitting for the many 
portraits which now adorn thp French picture galleries. 
Engineers, architects, and scientists, also, had all the work 
they could do ; and literature was duly encouraged, al- 
though the two greatest French writers of the day, Chateau- 
briand (sha-to-bre-aN') and Madame de Stael (sta'el), foes 
of the emperor, were living in exile, and thus some of 
their greatest works were written out of the country. 
That Napoleon regretted the dearth of great literary Hghts 
at his court, is proved by his saying, " Had Corneille ^ 
lived in my day, I should have made a prince of him ! " 
You see. Napoleon was so fond of tragedy, — then admi- 
rably played by Talma, — that nothing would have pleased 
him better than to have his reign marked by literary 
masterpieces as was that of Louis XIV. 

Napoleon's child — so longed for — was born on the 20th 
of March, 181 1. Everybody, of course, hoped for a boy 
to inherit the imperial crown, and it had been arranged to 
announce a birth in the Tuileries by firing twenty-one guns 
for a daughter and one hundred for a son. You can im- 
agine, therefore, how breathlessly people counted the 

1 Pronounced cor-na'y'. See Story of Oid France, p. 357. 



20O 



MODERN FRANCE 



shots, and with what cheers they greeted the booming of 
the twenty-second gun ! Then Napoleon himself appeared 
at a window, holding his new-born treasure for all to see, 
while the semaphores (signal telegraphs) spread the happy 
tidings, which were everywhere received with great rejoic- 
ings, no one being 
more glad, or con- 
gratulating Napoleon 
more cordially, than 
poor deserted Jose- 
phine. 

The possession of 
this son, who received 
at birth the title of 
" King of Rome," 
seemed to fill Napo- 
leon's cup of bliss and 
prosperity ; feeling 
the future assured, 
he now began to plan 
far ahead, his care 
for the administration 
of the empire proving, 
if anything, greater 
than ever. And it was a very large section of Europe 
that Napoleon thus governed, for France had annexed 
Belgium, Holland, and a large part of Italy, besides Ger- 
many as far as the Rhine, while many kingdoms and 
duchies elsewhere were also subject to her emperor. 

Napoleon was the kind of man who had bhndly enthusi- 
astic friends, as well as bitter enemies ; he was, besides, 




Painting by Nattier. 

Marie Louise and the Infant King of Rome. 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 



201 




Europe in 1812. 

generally surrounded by flatterers, who fostered his vanity 
by making such remarks as this : " Sire, some say that 
you are a god, others that you are a devil, but all unite in 
agreeing that you are more than a man ! " Can you 
wonder that after a few years of such adulation his head 
was somewhat turned, and that he learned to believe him- 
self infallible ? But Napoleon was to exemplify to the 
utmost the old saying that " pride goes before a fall." 



-00-i«iC 



XL. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN 

WE have seen how Napoleon and Alexander had 
sworn friendship on the raft in the Niemen and at 
Erfurt, and how they planned to divide Europe between 



202 MODERN FRANCE 

them. But after the birth of an heir, Napoleon began to 
think that two masters in Europe might quarrel, especially 
as Alexander was no longer so friendly. You see, the 
Russian emperor had by this time discovered that Napo- 
leon's promises could not be relied upon, and when Napo- 
leon — whose rudeness passed all bounds at times — called 
him to order like a naughty schoolboy for not enforcing 
with sufficient severity the Continental Blockade, their 
relations became so strained that they were soon open 
foes. 

In 1812, therefore, England, Russia, and Spain began 
the Sixth Coalition, which all the other European nations 
were in time to join, and which was to pursue its work 
until Napoleon had twice fallen from the dizzy heights to 
which genius and ambition had raised him. Napoleon's 
downfall was due, ist, to his measureless ambition, which 
threatened to annihilate every other power; 2d, to the 
fact that he would listen to neither argument nor advice, 
but deemed himself infallible; 3d, to his obstinate attempts 
to enforce the Continental Blockade, thus angering many 
Europeans, while injuring England little; 4th, to his rash 
and obstinate war in Spain, by which he tied up an impor- 
tant part of his army ; 5th, to his attack on Russia, where, 
instead of fighting against men only, he also had to face a 
deadly chmate. 

Napoleon began the fatal Russian campaign contrary 
to the advice or wishes of his ablest marshals, whose ar- 
guments he silenced with his old refrain, ''The French 
love glory; to give them glory is to give them happiness!" 
But the emperor forgot that campaigns can end in defeat 
as well as in glory. Alexander proved wiser, and clearly 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 203 

perceiving that some of Napoleon's German allies were 
loyal only because they feared him, said, " If the Emperor 
Napoleon should experience a reverse, the whole of Ger- 
many would rise up to oppose his retreat or to prevent the 
arrival of his reenforcements !" 

Just before starting, Napoleon held a brilliant reunion 
of all the royalties and aristocracy at Dres'den, where for 
the last time all paid homage to him, no one suspecting 
how soon all his magnificence would come to an end. 
After the festivities were over, court attire was laid aside, 
and the emperor, having bidden his wife farewell, set out 
to invade Russia with nearly half a million men of dif- 
ferent nationalities, for every subordinate country had 
been asked to send troops for his use. 

It was with a large part of this mixed " army of twenty 
nations " that Napoleon himself crossed the Niemen and 
pursued a Russian army into the heart of the country. 
The Russians, however, were fleeing before him merely so 
as to lure him on, and were destroying everything as they 
passed, so that the invaders had to bring their supplies 
over longer and longer distances. Nevertheless, knowing 
that great stores had been collected at Mos'cow, — where 
he intended to quarter his forces in comfort for the winter 
season, — -Napoleon hastened boldly on. 

Twice on the way, the Russians turned and fought 
bloody battles, and were defeated but not destroyed, — 
first at Smolensk' and then at Borodi'no (1812). Here, on 
the eve of the struggle, the emperor received a portrait 
of the baby King of Rome, which he proudly set up out- 
side his tent, so that officers and men could admire it. 
Then, saying his child was still too young and innocent to 



204 MODERN FRANCE 

gaze upon such sights as awaited them on the morrow, he 
ordered this picture carefully packed up. 

When Moscow — the sacred city and then the capital 
of Russia — was reached, Napoleon was surprised to find 
it deserted and to be allowed to enter without opposition. 
Fearing some ambush, the French marched in warily, sur- 
prised to find only a few stragglers in the streets, instead 
of the usual 300,000 inhabitants. Even prisons were 
empty, the Russian general having liberated all captives 
before leaving ; but, although the Russians had apparently 
abandoned everything to the foe, some of them had, in 
reality, made very clever preparations to frustrate all 
Napoleon's carefully made plans. 



-oo>»i< 



XLL THE RETREAT! 

ON the day after the invading army marched into 
Moscow, while they were planning to settle there 
in winter quarters to recruit their strength, fire suddenly 
broke out in several parts of the city at the same time. 
At first this conflagration was thought to be accidental, 
but when no fire apparatus could be discovered (the Rus- 
sians had destroyed or removed everything of the kind), 
and when the flames began to spread with lightning-like 
rapidity. Napoleon suddenly realized that this was the 
work of the enemy, who to foil him had sacrificed their 
Holy City! 

Fed by trains of powder and hidden stores of inflam- 
mable materials, the fire raged madly, the furious and chang- 
ing gales of the autumn helping it on, until nearly the 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 



205 



whole city was a seething furnace. At the end of three 
awful days and nights, nine tenths of the houses there 
were in ashes. 

With difficulty, Napoleon and his men escaped from the 
burning capital, and after some further delay in hopes of 
reaching an understanding with the Russian emperor, or 




ir'aiiiting by 1^/iillippoteaux. 



The Retreat. 



Czar, they set out to return home. But the early Russian 
winter had already set in, so the retreat was conducted 
much of the way in the midst of driving snow, by troops 
unaccustomed to a severe climate, and neither clothed nor 
otherwise equipped to bear cold properly.. Besides, all 
supplies were so scanty, that even the starving horses had 
to be killed for food! For eight weeks, therefore, the 



2o6 MODERN FRANCE 

army trudged wearily on, discipline and order being soon 
forgotten by most of them, each man trying only to get 
over the frozen plain as best he could. The men were, 
besides, continually harassed by the pursuing Russians, 
and had to keep up a continuous running fight. Forced 
to bivouac at night by insufficient fires, with no other 
covering than the snow, thousands simply froze to death 
in their sleep, their stripped bodies being left by their 
companions a prey to the wolves. 

As supplies along the route had been destroyed, and as 
the horses died of starvation, even the emperor trudged 
many weary miles on foot, living on the scantiest fare, yet 
encouraging his men by sharing all their hardships. It 
would be impossible to tell you of the despair caused by 
the cold, the deep snow, the sudden thaw and thick mud, 
then the colder and colder weather ; the long road strewn 
with corpses and abandoned munitions of war ; and the 
constant terror caused by bands of Cossacks attacking the 
sides and rear, slaying or capturing all those who tarried 
or straggled off in search of provisions. But during those 
eight weeks, countless deeds of heroism were performed, 
and Marshal Ney (na), who had charge of the rear guard, 
covered the retreat, step by step, actually using a musket 
like any of his men, and thus earning his proudest title, 
that of " Bravest of the Brave." ^ 

Several times the host was in great danger, and once 
the emperor in person had to charge at the head of his 
guard. But the climax of this tragic retreat was reached 
on the banks of the Beresina (ber-e-zee'na) River, where 
the ice proved too thin to serve as a bridge. Those who 

1 See Yonge's Kenneth, or the Rear Guard of the Grand Army. 




(207) 



2o8 MODERN FRANCE 

ventured on it were lost, and the bridge builders, standing 
for hours in the icy waters, perished in scores. Scarcely 
were the bridges ready when people began to hurry across, 
crowding so that even the emperor owed his safety only 
to his coachman's skill and daring. Part of the army got 
across in safety, but then came the mob of fugitives, crush- 
ing each other ruthlessly in their mad haste. Finally, when 
Russian grapeshot began to pour down upon this spot, 
the bridges, unable to support the stampeding multitude, 
suddenly collapsed, hurling their human freight into the 
icy waters. It is said that the Russians afterwards picked 
up and burned no less than twenty-four thousand dead 
bodies on the banks of this fatal stream. 

Early in December, the emperor learned that in the 
absence of tidings from the snow-bound army, a rumor of 
his death had arisen, and that a conspiracy had been 
formed, which had nearly overthrown his carefully es- 
tablished government ! Feeling that he must reach Paris, 
and hold the reins of government in his own firm hand 
when the news of the Russian disaster became known 
there, Napoleon left Murat, Ney, and his other generals 
to direct the remainder of the retreat as best they 
could, and, by posting on night and day, reached his 
capital before any one even suspected he was coming. 
But it was only little by little that he allowed the full ex- 
tent of the loss of life caused by the Russian campaign to 
become known, for out of the half million men who started, 
less than 100,000 — some say only 20,000 — ever returned. 
And of the 1 50,000 Frenchmen in that proud host which 
had set out only a few months before, there were left only 
a handful of tattered, emaciated, crippled survivors. 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 209 

The story of the awful suffering during the retreat 
sorely wrung the hearts of mothers, widows, and orphans, 
kindling deep indignation against a sovereign who could 
expose his subjects to such suffering solely to satisfy his 
tremendous ambition. Even the soldiers, not compre- 
hending the claims of politics, resented Napoleon's deser- 
tion of them, saying: "What! is it thus that he abandons 
those of whom he calls himself the father ? Where, then, 
is the genius who in the height of prosperity exhorted us 
to bear our sufferings patiently ? He who lavished our 
blood, is he afraid to die with us ? Will he treat us like 
the army of Egypt, to whom he became indifferent when 
by a shameful flight he found himself free from danger ? " 
That desertion, which so rankled in the hearts of the sol- 
diers, proved, besides, a bad example, for several officers 
also forsook their troops, leaving Ney and a few kindred 
spirits to bear the full brunt of the sufferings caused by 
the retreat. But Ney proved a real hero, for he stood by 
his men to the very end, throwing away his gun only after 
discharging it a last time at the pursuing foe, and plung- 
ing last of all into the icy Niemen, across which he swam 
to safety. 

XLII. THE CAMPAIGN OF 1813 

JUST as soon as the disaster in Russia became fully 
known, Alexander's prediction was partly justified, 
for some of the German states abandoned Napoleon to 
join the Sixth Coalition, and turned upon him to avenge 
their losses. Prussia, which he had so humiliated, made 
truly heroic sacrifices to arm against him, the women sell- 



2IO MODERN FRANCE 

ing even their fine hair and wedding rings to increase the 
war fund. Thus, in 1813, Napoleon found himself seriously 
threatened; but, still faithful to his old tactics, he deter- 
mined to strike the first blow instead of waiting to be at- 
tacked. With French regiments composed of mere boys, 
— for he had been obliged to antedate the usual conscrip- 
tions, — and with the troops supplied by such German 
states as still remained loyal to him, he defeated the Rus- 
sians and Prussians in the hard-fought battles of Liit'zen 
and Bautzen (bou'tsen). These successes, however, he so 
greatly exaggerated to reassure the French, that people 
began to use the expression " as false as the bulletin," as 
a mild substitute for the word ''lie." Moreover, these 
triumphs in Germany were more than offset by severe 
losses in Spain, whence the French were driven by 
Wellington, who threatened even to invade southern 
France. 

Deeming the opportunity favorable, the Emperor of 
Austria sent his prime minister Metternich to Dresden, to 
persuade Napoleon to make peace. But the conditions 
offered were so humiliating to the French emperor's pride, 
that he indignantly refused them, and when Metternich 
gravely reminded him that a continuation of the war 
would probably cost the lives of some 200,000 men, he made 
the brutal reply, " What do I care for 200,000 lives ? " 
His worst offense, however, consisted in asking Metternich 
ironically how much the English were paying him to talk 
thus. This insult Metternich never forgot, and he duly 
avenged it, although keen enough to realize that there 
was, after all, considerable truth in the statement Napo- 
leon then made ; *' Your sovereigns, born on the throne, 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 211 

may be beaten twenty times and reenter their capitals. I 
cannot, because I am a soldier who has risen from the 
ranks. My domination will not survive the day when I 
shall cease to be strong, and consequently feared." 

It was after this momentous interview, and only because 
Napoleon obstinately refused to make peace, that his 
father-in-law joined the Coalition. Among its other sup- 
porters, by this time, were Bernadotte — Napoleon's old 
lieutenant — and Moreau, who had conspired against the 
First Consul and had since been an exile (see page 162). 

While the allied armies were constantly growing larger. 
Napoleon still won the battle of Dresden, where Moreau 
was slain ; but he was at last badly defeated in the three 
days' " Battle of the Nations," at Leipzig (October, 1813). 
In this battle. Napoleon's forces were less than half as 
large as those of his opponents, and, besides, some of 
his German allies deserted and joined the foe, in the midst 
of the fight. The retreat after the battle of Leipzig also 
proved most disastrous, for, owing to some mistake, a 
bridge was blown up before all the army could cross, and 
many were thus cut off and lost, a brave Polish prince 
(Poniatowski) perishing in the attempt to swim across 
the river. 

The battle of Leipzig is considered one of the decisive 
battles of the world, because it put an end to the French 
domination of Europe. Thereafter all the German states, 
no longer subject to Napoleon, banded against him, eager 
and ready to join Prussia and take their revenge by invad- 
ing France. In this patriotic German uprising, Jerome — 
who had already once been dethroned and reinstated — ■ 
lost forever the kingdom of Westphalia. The Germans, 










J^^!^y_^j,^Z'% 




(212) 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 213 

flushed with their recent triumph, hotly pursued the fleeing 
French, greeting with joy the " German Rhine," which, as 
their national song, " The Watch on the Rhine," declares, 
they meant henceforth to guard faithfully from the 
stranger's tread. 

»0>»^0C 

XLIII. THE CAMPAIGN OF 1814 

NEARLY all Europe was now against Napoleon, and 
his frontiers were menaced on all sides at once. He 
therefore made a desperate effort to recover the confidence 
of Catholic Europe by liberating the Pope and sending him 
back to Rome ; then he made a treaty with Spain, freeing 
King Ferdinand VII. and renouncing the throne for his 
brother Joseph, — a treaty which did not, however, prevent 
the English from continuing hostilities on their own ac- 
count in southern France. 

The allies had declared that they would "enter into no 
treaty while a single individual of the French army re- 
mained in Germany," and that they had *'no wish to make 
war with France nor to diminish its territories or its com- 
merce, their war being with the emperor only, or rather 
with that domination which he had too long exercised be- 
yond the limits of his empire for the misfortune of Europe." 
It was, therefore, to punish and awe their foe, Napoleon, 
that the allies planned to invade France. They entered at 
three different points, their forces all converging toward 
Paris. Thus Napoleon had to oppose three armies, each 
stronger than his own, and it required such miUtary genius 
as his to face such a task. Still, no choice remained, in 
his opinion, for the only terms the foe would now offer 



214 MODERN FRANCE 

were to leave France the boundaries she had in 1789. In 
his indignation at this proposal, Napoleon exclaimed: 
" What ! Leave France smaller than I found her ? Never ! 
I have sworn to maintain the integrity of the territory of 
the Republic. If the allies persist in wanting to dismem- 
ber France, I see only three alternatives — to conquer, die, 
or abdicate ! " 

Critical as the situation was. Napoleon, nevertheless, be- 
lieved he could cope with it when he set out on his winter 
campaign of 18 14. Before leaving Paris, he appointed 
Marie Louise regent, begging his brother Joseph to advise 
her, and presented his boy to the National Guard, who 
swore to defend him ; then Napoleon bade a tender fare- 
well to his wife and three-year-old son, whom he was never 
to see again ! 

Never did Napoleon show more activity and genius than 
during the campaign of 18 14, when he accomplished won- 
ders. In fact, had not the country been too drained of 
men to supply him with sufficient soldiers, and his generals 
too weary with the past twenty years of almost constant 
warfare to support him with their former zeal, he would 
have succeeded in either driving out the foe or in annihi- 
lating them. As it was, in one month he fought fourteen 
battles, winning twelve against great odds. But, whereas 
the Germans and Austrians were now inclined to offer 
peace again, Alexander insisted upon their continuing the 
war, saying : *' It would not be peace ; it would be a truce 
which would not allow us to disarm one moment. I can- 
not come four hundred leagues every day to your assist- 
ance. No peace so long as Napoleon is on the throne ! " 
Thus Napoleon's former friend was now his bitterest 



FIRST EMPIRE (1804-1814) 215 

enemy ; and, urged by him, the allies, strongly reenforced, 
pressed every day nearer to the capital. 

Napoleon now devised a stratagem whereby he hoped 
still to win the unequal contest. He ceased to resist the 
advance of the allies on the capital, merely sending a 
small force to Paris to organize the citizens for its de- 
fense, while he and his main army prepared to fall on the 
rear of the enemy. Said he, '' Let Paris only defend itself, 
and not one foreigner will recross the Rhine ! " But when 
the immense armies of the allies came near, the empress, 
influenced by Joseph, fled with her son from Paris, thereby 
causing such a panic that the people, fancying themselves 
abandoned, thought of nothing save making the best terms 
they could for themselves. Only part of them could 
be roused to fight ; and when they were defeated (at the 
barrier of Clichy) after a heroic struggle, Paris promptly 
surrendered, allowing the allies to make a triumphal entry 
into the city. 

Several of the marshals, deeming the imperial cause 
lost, yet wishing to continue to serve France, now surren- 
dered, thus crippling Napoleon, just when he was hasten- 
ing to rescue Paris ! As what was already done could not 
be undone, the emperor retreated in despair to Fontaine- 
bleau, where he wished to make a last stand, but where his 
officers, weary of fighting, and hopeless of success, refused 
to strike another blow. Abandoned by all, yet hoping to 
induce his father-in-law to use his influence in behalf of the 
King of Rome, Napoleon wrote him the following letter : 

" The Allied Powers having proclaimed the Emperor Napoleon as 
the sole obstacle to the reestablishment of peace in Europe, the Em- 
peror Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that he is ready to descend 



2l6 



MODERN FRANCE 



from the throne, to quit France, and even to relinquish life, for the good 

of the country, which is inseparable from the rights of his son, from 

those of the Regency in the person of the Empress, and from the 

maintenance of the laws of the Empire. Done at our Palace of Fon- 

tainebleau, April 4th, 18 14. 

"Napoleon." 

But this renunciation came too late, for the Senate had 
already declared the Empire at an end, and freed the 
people from their oath of fidelity to its government. It 
fell to Ney's lot to crush Napoleon's last illusions, and he 




Room in Fontainebleau in which Napoleon abdicated. 

did so by telling him, " France, the army, and the cause of 
peace demand an unconditional abdication ! " Thus driven 
to bay. Napoleon signed (on the small round table still 
carefully preserved at Fontainebleau) the complete abdica- 
tion that was demanded, and then sank into a state of 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 217 

brooding despair, from whicti some one compassionately 
tried to rouse him by saying how much his generals and 
army would miss him, to which remark he bitterly retorted : 
'' Not at all ! They will say, ' Ouf ! Now we are going to 
rest ! ' " 

Meantime, the allies had marched triumphantly into 
Paris — just as Napoleon had entered the majority of the 
capitals of Europe — and had been influenced by Talley- 
rand and other RoyaHsts to ignore the claims of Napoleon's 
son, and recall the Bourbon dynasty to the French throne. 
So all the emblems of the Empire were hastily destroyed 
or transformed into royal ones, — the conventional bees 
into fleurs-de-lis, — and it was only with difficulty that some 
rabid partisans of the new government, and the Austrian 
soldiers, could be withheld from tearing down the Vendome 
column ! You see, the tide had turned, and as the free- 
dom of the press had been restored, the newspapers — 
long muzzled — now denounced Napoleon in unsparing 
terms. 

Louis XVIII., who claimed to be ''king by the grace 
of God," and dated his reign from the death of his nephew 
Louis XVII., was not, however, allowed to enter Paris 
until he had promised in the " Declaration of St. Ouen " 
(saN twaN') to respect the rights of the people, who, taught 
by experience, demanded such a guarantee. His brother, 
the first to arrive, affably announced that with the restored 
monarchy all troubles would cease, the only difference 
being that "there was one more Frenchman in France ! " 
He was closely followed by Louis XVIII., traveling slowly 
in the company of his niece, the Duchess of Angouleme 
(Madam Royal), for whom this return to France was 



2i8 MODERN FRANCE 

fraught equally with pleasure and with pain, but who 
turned ghastly pale when addressed as "the Orphan of 
the Temple," and fainted on reentering the Tuileries, which 
she had left with her family under such tragic circum- 
stances (see pages 80, 127). 

»0»400 

XLIV. FAREWELLS AT FONTAINEBLEAU 

MEANTIME, Napoleon was at Fontainebleau, where, 
after signing his abdication, he is said to have made 
a vain attempt to commit suicide by taking a poison whose 
strength was spent. The allies decided to allow him to 
retain his title of emperor, and to give him the island of 
Elba, with a yearly allowance of ^1,000,000, while his wife 
was to have the duchy of Parma as long as she lived, in 
exchange for the dazzling imperial crown bestowed upon 
her at her marriage. 

The usual sudden and cruel revulsion of feeling having 
taken place. Napoleon, the once adored, was now so exe- 
crated that elaborate preparations had to be made to con- 
vey him safely to a southern port. Before starting. Napo- 
leon went down into the great court of Fontainebleau, to 
select the small force allowed to escort him to Elba, and 
to bid farewell to the renjainder of his men. His parting 
speech was: "Soldiers, my old companions in arms, whom 
I have always found on the road to glory, we must at 
length part ! I could have remained with you longer, 
but it must have been at the price of a cruel struggle ; 
of the addition, probably, of a civil war to a foreign 
war ; and I could not resolve to distract any longer the 
bosom of France. Enjoy the repose which you have 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 219 

so justly earned, and be happy. As for me, do not pity 
me. I have a mission still to perform, and to fulfill it I 
consent to live. This mission is to recount to posterity 
the great thing which we have done together. Adieu, my 
children. I would willingly press each of you to my heart, 
but I can at least embrace your general and your flag ! " 

After this dramatic and touching embrace, and in the 
midst of the tearful farewells of his men, Napoleon stepped 
into his traveling carriage and, escorted by commissioners 
sent by the allies, made his way southward. In the days 
of his prosperity Napoleon had realized how fickle people 
can be, for he had said : " For my part, I know very well 
I have no true friends. As long as I continue what I am, 
I may have as many friends as I please." But even he 
had no conception of what people could say and do to a 
fallen idol. The farther Napoleon proceeded, the more 
excited he found the people ; and at Aix thousands were 
ready to stone him when he passed ! To enable him to 
escape such violence, and to spare him some of the cruel 
jibes and insults, the commissioners disguised Napoleon 
as an Austrian officer for a time, and made haste to reach 
the port whence they set sail for Elba. 

On first beholding his island empire. Napoleon ruefully 
exclaimed, " You must acknowledge that my island is 
pretty small ! " It was, indeed, restricted space for one 
who had been master of nearly all Europe, and who had 
further aimed to become master of the world. Still, Napo- 
leon entered his new realm cheerfully, and immediately set 
to work to reorganize and improve it, so as to make it a 
model of its kind, keeping the while, as he expressed it, 
" an eye on France and on the Bourbons." He was, 



220 MODERN FRANCE 

besides, very busy preparing a suitable home for his wife 
and child, whom he expected in the fall, but who were now 
visiting the Emperor of Austria in Vienna. 

Meanwhile, Louis XVIII. was installing himself comfor- 
tably in the Tuileries, where many of the emigres hastened 
to join him, expecting, of course, the highest positions in 
reward for their fidelity to the royal cause. Thus many 
changes were effected at court and elsewhere, and it proved 
very hard for some of Napoleon's tried officers to make 
room for men who had little or no experience in warfare, 
or who, worse still, had borne arms against France ! Be- 
sides an unwelcome change of officers, the soldiers had 
another great grievance, which was the substitution of the 
white fleur-de-lis for the glorious red, white, and blue flag 
of the Revolution and Empire, and the suppression of the 
eagles which they had guarded so many years at the cost 
of their lives. 

The old emigres also did not hesitate to demand as a 
right the restoration of their former estates, and as most 
of these had been confiscated and sold since the Revolution 
began, their new owners were justly indignant at the thought 
that they might be dispossessed of lands they had not only 
paid for, but greatly improved. 

The change of government from empire to monarchy 
necessitating a new constitution, Louis XVIII. sorely 
offended the nation by *' vouchsafing " the Charter of 1814, 
which Frenchmen claimed as their due. Besides, his utter 
disregard of all that had been done, and of France's 
glorious history since his nephew's death, proved another 
grievance, of which people were constantly reminded by 
his mania for dating state documents *'in the nineteenth 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 221 

year of our reign," and for closing them with the offensive 
old-time formula, " for such is our good pleasure." 

On the 30th of May, 18 14, the peace of Paris was con- 
cluded, which left France with the boundaries it had had 
in 1792; thus depriving her of some of the conquests 
made during the Republic and of all those made during the 
Empire. This peace also provided that Switzerland and 
the Netherlands should be independent countries, the latter 
including both Holland and Belgium; but as Napoleon had 
changed the map of Europe in so many places during 
his rule, the question how to rearrange it in Germany, Italy, 
and elsewhere was left to be settled at a congress to meet 
in Vienna, for which each power appointed delegates. 
The five great powers — Austria, France, Great Britain, 
Prussia, and Russia — and the many lesser states at first 
disagreed among themselves, because Russia and Prussia 
wished to enlarge their boundaries too greatly. It there- 
fore took much negotiating to settle things, so that the 
congress was in session a long time. 



3>»j< 



XLV. THE RETURN FROM ELBA 

THE discussions of the congress of Vienna were printed 
in the European newspapers, which in time reported 
that many of its members were determined not to leave Na- 
poleon in peaceful possession of Elba, but were planning 
to transport him, instead, to some remote place, as his pres- 
ence so near France and Italy would prove a constant 
menace to peace. This news duly reached Elba, where you 
can imagine how eagerly it was read and discussed. Napo- 



222 MODERN FRANCE 

leon was now very restive, not only because the congress 
seemed inclined to revoke the gift of Elba, but also because 
not a penny of the money promised had been paid him. 
Besides, his letters to his wife and son were intercepted and 
destroyed, thus showing that it was hardly likely that they 
would ever be allowed to join him ; and he was constantly 
under the irksome surveillance of a commissioner sent by 
the allies to make sure that he should not leave Elba. 

His sister Pauline, who had come to visit him, and who 
could journey to and fro at will, soon began to make 
frequent excursions to the mainland, secretly bearing many 
confidential communications, and thus enabling Napoleon 
to get in touch with his old friends. In this way, the em- 
peror learned that the injudicious, tactless behavior of the 
Boufbons — of whom he was in the habit of saying that 
"they had learned nothing and forgotten nothing" — was 
alienating even their friends, and that French soldiers and 
officers, almost to a man, would welcome his return. 

As you know, Napoleon was not a man to hesitate ; he 
now began to arrange for a return to France, planning 
his measures with the same care as his famous battles, 
his own description of his methods being : " I am always 
working. I think a great deal. If I appear ready to 
meet every emergency, to confront every problem, it is 
because, before undertaking any enterprise, I have long 
considered it, and have thus foreseen what could possibly 
occur. It is no genius which suddenly and secretly reveals 
to me what I have to say or do in some circumstance un- 
foreseen by others ; it is my own meditation and reflection. 
I am always working, when dining, when at the theater; I 
waken at night in order to work ! " 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) ' 223 

It was necessary to act, however, before the congress 
took further measures to interfere with his Hberty, so Na- 
poleon took advantage of the brief absence of the aUies' 
commissioner, — who had gone to Genoa, — to sail out of 
his Elba capital with the little fleet of fishing and merchant 
vessels always at hand. On these Napoleon had quickly 
embarked his small force, but it was only when the 
shores of his island were fading from view, that it 
became generally known on board that they were not 
making an excursion, as usual, but stealing a march upon 
the allies. 

Then, while all the men who could write were below 
decks, eagerly making as many copies as possible of a 
vivid proclamation, Napoleon paced the deck with his 
principal confidants. While he was there, the vessel was 
suddenly hailed by an English ship, the captain asking, 
among other questions, for news of Napoleon. Taking the 
speaking trumpet from the astonished captain's hand. 
Napoleon personally answered this inquiry, laughingly 
wondering afterwards what the English captain would 
have said had he known who was speaking ! 

Without any hindrance the small fleet proceeded, and 
Napoleon landed safely in France with his handful of men. 
The proclamation the soldiers had copied was now scat- 
tered broadcast. It ran as follows : '* Frenchmen ! In 
my exile I heard your complaints and your wishes. You 
blamed my long slumber, you reproached me with sacrific- 
ing the welfare of the country to my repose. I have trav- 
ersed the sea, through perils of every kind ; I return 
among you to claim my rights, which are yours." This 
proclamation spread like wildfire, making known every- 



224 MODERN FRANCE 

where the fact that Napoleon had returned ; news which 
was welcomed by those who regretted him, by those who 
had grievances against the present government, and by 
the vast class for whom any change seems desirabFe and 
is therefore welcome. 

Napoleon's march northwards began immediately, his 
ranks increasing rapidly as he proceeded. No one ven- 
tured to oppose him, at first, so the emperor could march 
at the head of his troop, calling out to the gaping peas- 
ants by the roadside, " Citizens, I count on the people, 
because I am one of the people ! " To those who 
seemed to mistrust his former vaulting ambition, he 
frankly confessed that it had been a mistake on his part 
to try to make France mistress of the world, and he reas- 
sured all by speaking only of peace and order, with free- 
dom of thought and action for everybody. 

It was near Greno'ble that Napoleon encountered the 
first troops sent to check his advance. Halting his force, 
the emperor advanced alone and on foot to meet them, un- 
buttoned his familiar gray overcoat, and exhibiting his 
well-known uniform, cried, " Is there any one among you 
who wants to kill his emperor.? " These words, added to 
his magnetic presence, had the desired effect. The sol- 
diers simply dropped their arms, and fell upon their knees, 
madly kissing his hands and garments and shouting, *' Long 
live the emperor!" Then, drawing from hidden recesses 
in their knapsacks the precious eagles and the cockades 
of red, white, and blue which they had been treasuring so 
proudly, they showed they had not yet forgotten him or 
their glorious campaigns under his leadership. The fact 
that Napoleon actually recognized a number of them, and 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 



225 



called them by name, recalling the scenes in which they 
had played a glorious part, helped to rekindle extravagant 
devotion for the beloved *' Little Corporal," whom they 
again swore to follow everywhere. 




Fainting by Steuben. 



The Return from Elba. 



A little further on Labedoy ere (la-ba-dwa-yar') brought 
Napoleon a whole regiment, and every town he approached 
welcomed him so warmly that not a single blow was 
struck. Everything promised to fulfill Napoleon's pre- 
diction to the soldiers, " Victory shall advance at charging 
gait, and the eagle, with the national colors, shall fly from 
steeple to steeple until it reaches the towers of Notre 
Dame!" 



226 MODERN FRANCE 

XLVI. THE HUNDRED DAYS 

MEANTIME, Louis XVHI.'s brother and nephews 
tried hard to make the soldiers do their duty, but 
were unable to stem the tide. When the time came to 
fight, only one of the National Guards, it is said, remained 
faithful to the king. 

Ney — now in the king's service — led an army south- 
ward, rashly promising to bring Napoleon back to Paris 
caged like a wild beast ; but as he approached the district 
already held by the emperor, the example of other regi- 
ments proved so contagious that he and his army also 
deserted to join Napoleon. But one of his officers, eager 
to join the emperor, and yet mindful of his oath of fidelity 
to the king, broke his sword and regretfully left the ranks, 
saying, " It is easier for a man of honor to break iron than 
his word." After N*ey's defection, a wag stuck up a 
notice on the Vend6me column, purporting to come direct 
from Napoleon, and blandly bidding Louis XVIII. send 
him no more troops, as he already had all he needed ! 

At Bordeaux (bor-do') the Duchess of Angouleme made 
heroic personal efforts to induce the soldiers to fight 
for their king, showing such courage that Napoleon ad- 
miringly said she was the " only man of her family ! " But 
the persuasions of the unhappy daughter of Louis XVI. 
proved of no avail ; and the royal family — afraid of incur- 
ring Louis XVI. 's fate — fled in great haste from France, 
to the intense relief of Napoleon, who would not have 
known what to do with them if they had remained. 

From Lyons to Paris the enthusiasm seemed to increase 
with every step, and when Napoleon reached theTuileries, in 



NAPOLEON I. (1815) 227 

the evening of March 20, 18 15, he was borne up the grand 
staircase in the arms of his devoted adherents. He found 
many of his old officials already in their wonted places in 
the palace, and everything ready to receive him, in the 
rooms which Louis XVIII. had left only a few hours 
before. 

This was a grand day, — the fifth anniversary of his 
son's birth, — and his friends boasted that a horse-chest- 
nut tree in the palace gardens had just burst out in full 
bloom, as if to honor the occasion. In after years, also, 
his partisans claimed that this tree was always in bloom 
on the anniversary of Napoleon's return, although others 
of its kind might flower earlier or later, according to the 
season. Not a shot had been fired, not a drop of blood 
spilled, the flag of the Republic had literally " flown from 
steeple to steeple," so the change in government could 
be viewed only ''as a conspiracy in which a whole nation 
was implicated." Thus began Napoleon's second reign, 
which is commonly known as "The Hundred Days," and 
which lasted from March 20 to June 22, 181 5. 

During his sojourn in Elba, where Napoleon had leisure 
to think dispassionately, and was no longer constantly 
surrounded by flatterers, he had perceived some of the mis- 
takes he had made in his previous dealings with France. 
He therefore determined to rectify some of these past er- 
rors, and in earnest thereof appointed Carnot — a stanch 
Republican — minister of the interior, and granted full 
freedom to the press. He also declared : " I am not 
merely, as they have called me, the emperor of the soldiers ; 
I am that of the peasants, of the commons of France. So, 
in spite of all that is past, you will see the people come 



228 MODERN FRANCE 

back to me. There is sympathy between us, because I 
have risen from their midst. It is not with me as it is with 
the privileged class." 

While Napoleon was reorganizing the government and 
army of France, his brother-in-law Murat — who had 
hitherto been left in peaceful possession of Naples — 
rashly laid claim to all Italy, but was defeated by the Aus- 
trians at Tolentino (to-len-tee'no), and thus forfeited his 
crown, which was restored to its former bearer, who became 
once more " King of the Two Sicilies." 

On the 26th of May, the new modifications in the im- 
perial government were publicly announced on the Field 
of Mars, to the rapturous delight of the people, who 
registered one and a half miUion votes majority in favor of 
the restored empire. There, too, the emperor reviewed 
his new army, for, in spite of his openly avowed desire for 
peace, war was already near at hand. You see, the news 
of Napoleon's escape, reaching Vienna before the congress 
was dissolved, had roused the old coalition to new activity. 
The powers declared Napoleon an outlaw, and swore never 
to lay down their arms until he was punished. Some people 
even said, — for this time France as well as Napoleon in- 
curred their strictures, — " Let us march on to divide that im- 
pious land. We must exterminate that band of cutthroats 
called the French army. The world cannot dwell in peace 
as long as a French people exists ! " 

You can imagine the effect of such declarations upon 
an excitable people, justly proud of its past. Even those 
recently weary of warfare were now ready to fight again ; 
and, hacj more time been granted him, Napoleon might 
perchance have armed all France, save the small Royalist 



NAPOLEON I. (1815) 229 

region of the Vendee, which renewed the old civil war in 
favor of Louis XVIIL 

Meantime, Napoleon's letters demanding the return of 
his wife and son had been disregarded, and he had 
not been allowed to communicate with them, so closely 
were they watched and guarded. He knew, therefore, 
that he could recover them only by awing his foes. 
Thinking that his best chances for success would be lost 
if he delayed action until the armies of the allies could 
unite, and anxious, besides, to carry the war out of the 
country. Napoleon decided to attack the armies of the 
English and Prussians stationed in Belgium, hoping that 
he could annihilate them separately before the Austrians 
and Russians could draw near France. 



3X»i« 



XLVIL WATERLOO 

GENERAL WELLINGTON, who commanded the 
Enghsh army, was at a ball in Brussels when the 
surprising news suddenly arrived that Napoleon was ad- 
vancing. Quietly excusing himself, Wellington hurried 
to rejoin his troops, only to find Napoleon trying the 
old plan — so often successful — of driving the two allied 
armies apart, so as to overwhelm each separately. 

The French army first defeated Bliicher (blii'Ker) and 
his Prussians, with heavy losses, at Ligny (leen-yee'), but 
did not succeed in routing them. Napoleon then sent 
part of his army, under Grouchy (groo-shee'), to drive the 
Prussians farther away, while he himself, with most of his 
troops, made ready to attack the English army on the hill 



230 



MODERN FRANCE 



of Waterloo'. He rightly felt that everything depended 
upon the result of the coming battle ; and, although 
strangely depressed, inspired his soldiers as usual by a 
stirring address, concluding with the words, " Soldiers, 

for all brave Frenchmen 
the time has come to 
conquer or die ! " 

On the English side, 
those who had encoun- 
tered Napoleon in battle 
before, were far more 
apprehensive of the re- 
sult than Wellington, 
who declared, '' I, at 
least, will not be fright- 
ened beforehand ! " 
Like Napoleon, he knew 
that the whole campaign 
would be settled by the 
coming battle ; for if he 




Movements leading to Waterloo. 



were driven back, he could no longer keep in touch with 
Bliicher. When asked for instructions, therefore, he ex- 
claimed, " Stand here till the last man falls ! " 

This battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 18 15, was 
one of the most thrilling in history, and has been described 
so interestingly by great writers that you will like to read 
their accounts of it.^ There were brilliant charges and 
countercharges, and skillful cannonading, and through it 
all the troops behaved so well that Napoleon could not 
restrain the admiring cry, *' How beautifully those English 

1 See Hugo's Les Miserables ; Hardy's The Dynasts. 



NAPOLEON I. (1815) 231 

fight ! " Still, they were even then being so hard pressed, 
that Wellington, knowing it would be impossible for his 
men to hold out much longer without aid, kept looking 
at his watch, and despairingly exclaimed, " Bliicher or 
night!" 

Meantime, Napoleon was hoping that General Grouchy 
might rejoin him after beating Bliicher. On beholding 
troops in the distance, Napoleon joyfully concluded they 
were his own, and was thunderstruck on learning that 
they were Bliicher's men joining his foe ! The last chance 
of success was gone, although the French, exhausted by 
many hours of fighting, still made desperate efforts. Ney 
even surpassed his former feats of daring on this day, 
and at the end of the battle led a charge, crying, " Follow 
me ; let me show you how a marshal of France dies ! " 
But he did not have the good fortune to perish on the 
battlefield, as he wished. The Imperial Guards also 
distinguished themselves, standing and fighting to the 
very last, thus proving the truth of their general's boast, 
"The Guard dies, but never surrenders ! " 

When Napoleon saw that the day was lost, he, too, would 
fain have plunged into the fray, to die with his men ; but 
one of his officers, seizing his horse's bridle, galloped 
away with him, and he thus became involved in the general 
stampede. The losses in this battle, where 11 5,000 for- 
eigners were engaged in the fight against 70,000 French- 
men, were enormous ; and Wellington, gazing at the dead 
on the battlefield that evening, justly said, "A great vic- 
tory is the saddest thing on earth except a great defeat ! " 
All these dead were buried under mounds and in trenches, 
and the famous battlefield is now a military cemetery, 




(232) 



NAPOLEON I. (1815) 233 

where both the EngHsh lion and the French eagle serve as 
monuments to commemorate the brave soldiers who fought 
and died on either side on that awful day. 

Realizing that all was over, Napoleon hastened back to 
Paris ; and when his brothers urged him to make another 
attempt and " dare everything," he sadly exclaimed, " I 
have already dared too much." Knowing how few were 
willing to support him any longer, he abdicated a second 
time in favor of his son, saying : *' Frenchmen, I offer my- 
self a sacrifice to the hatred of the enemies of France. 
My public life is finished. I proclaim my son under the 
title of Napoleon II., Emperor of the French." Although 
the Senate recognized Napoleon II., thereby giving him a 
place among the rulers of France, their action was ignored 
by the allies, whose armies again poured into France 
for the purpose of forcing the French to accept Louis 
XVIII. as their master, and made them purchase peace 
at a high price. 

XLVIII. NAPOLEON DEPORTED 

ALTHOUGH Napoleon had done great things for the 
country, his wars are estimated to have cost her 
about 1,700,000 lives. His foes had lost nearly 2,000,000 
men, so all through Eifrope the name of Napoleon was hated 
by those who mourned these dead, as is vividly depicted in 
a painting (by Wiertz) at Brussels, representing Napoleon 
attacked, even in Hades, by a horde of revengeful furies, 
the mothers and wives of those for whose death he is 
responsible. 

Meantime, urged to leave Paris lest his presence there 



234 



MODERN FRANCE 



endanger the city, Napoleon had taken leave of his family, 
— his little nephew Louis Napoleon (later Napoleon III.) 
clinging desperately to him, — and had driven off to Mal- 
maison, to revisit for the last time the gardens and rooms 
where he and Josephine had spent such happy hours. 

He also sought 
her tomb in the 
near-by village 
church (Rueil), 
and, last of all, 
entered the 
apartment where 
Josephine had 
died during his 
exile, her last 
words being, 
"Napoleon! 
Elba ! " Taking 
leave of his step- 
daughter Hor- 
tense, he then 
started for the 
western coast, 
hoping to find 
there some ves- 
sel to conveyhim 
safely to the United States, where he meant to take up 
his abode. But as several English frigates were cruising 
up and down off Rochefort (rosh-for'), he knew he would 
be captured and treated as a prisoner of war as soon as 
he got outside of the bar. Instead, Napoleon preferred 




The Tomb of Josephine at Rueil. 



NAPOLEON I. (1815) 235 

to throw himself upon the generosity of the EngHsh, 
and therefore wrote the following letter to the regent of 
England : — 

" Royal Highness : 

"A prey to the factions which divide my country, and to the enmity 

of the powers of Europe, I have terminated my pubHc career, and I 

come, like Themistocles,^ to seat myself at the hearth of the British 

people. I place myself under the protection of its laws, which I claim 

from your Royal Highness, as the most powerful, the most constant, 

and the most generous of my foes. 

" Napoleon." 

A free man, Napoleon stepped on board the Bcllcr' - 
ophoji, — an EngHsh man-of-war, — saying, " I have come 
to throw myself under the protection of the laws of Eng- 
land ! " He was never to be free again, — a fact which 
he must have dimly felt, for when the coasts of France 
faded from his view, he sadly exclaimed : *' Farewell, land of 
the brave ! Farewell, dear France. A few traitors less and 
you would still be a great nation, mistress of the world ! " 
Instead of the home in England, or the United States, for 
which Napoleon had pleaded, he was transferred from the 
Bellerophon to another vessel, and conveyed, with the 
few faithful followers allowed to accompany him, to the 
island of St. Hele'na, in mid-Atlantic. 

There, hundreds of miles from other lands, he was con- 
stantly watched and spied upon, and worried by the petty 
persecutions of his keeper Sir Hudson Lowe, whom we 
must say, however, Napoleon seemed to take pleasure in 
annoying as much as he could. But, accustomed to life in 
a palace. Napoleon was now lodged in a plain one-story 
building, where he was deprived of many ordinary com- 

1 See Story of the Greeks, p. 140. 




(236) 



NAPOLEON I. (1815) 237 

forts. Besides, sentinels posted here and there watched 
every step he took, until their presence became so irksome 
that the emperor finally preferred to remain in his room 
and small garden, rather than venture abroad and be 
annoyed by their proximity. During one of his few walks 
abroad, when one of his companions was trying to make 
a laden peasant-woman step aside to let the emperor pass, 
Napoleon climbed up on the rocks himself, to leave the 
narrow pathway free, saying, " Respect the burden ! " 

The most cruel feature of Napoleon's captivity, however, 
was that no tidings of his wife and son were ever allowed 
to reach him. So far as his wife is concerned, it was as 
well that Napoleon never had news of her ; for she was 
faithless both to him and to her womanhood. Even v/hile 
he was still in Elba, Marie Louise had ceased to care for 
him, and had fallen under the influence of one of her 
own attendants. When the Congress of Vienna finally 
gave her the duchy of Parma because she was the Austrian 
emperor's daughter, she abandoned her son to her father's 
keeping, and went off, perfectly happy, to five in the new 
home, where this favorite attendant became her prime 
minister and sole adviser.^ 

But the Httle '' King of Rome," who lost that title when 
Napoleon abdicated the first time, continued to mourn the 
father whom he could scarcely remember, and whom he 
had not seen since he was about three years old. His 
fidelity is all the more remarkable, because neither his 
mother nor any member of her family ever mentioned 
Napoleon in his presence, nor would they allow any one 
else to do so. Besides, the child was separated, almost 

1 See Guerber's Empresses of France. 



238 



MODERN FRANCE 



immediately, from all his French attendants, and handed 
over to German servants. 

Meanwhile there was nothing to make life tolerable for 
Napoleon. Tortured by inactivity, regretting the past, 
having no hope for the future, nagged by small discomforts 

and by a constant, 
galling sense of re- 
straint. Napoleon 
further became the 
victim of a cancer of 
the stomach which 
caused him untold 
agony. It proved, 
therefore, a blessed 
relief when, on the 
5th of May, 1821, 
after six years of 
captivity. Napoleon I. 
passed away. He 
was buried in a lonely 
valley, under a weep- 
ing willow, where his 
body was to remain 
some nineteen years 
before his admirers 
could carry out the fervent desire expressed in his will, " I 
wish my remains to rest on the banks of the Seine, amidst 
the French people whom I loved so dearly." 

Since his death at St. Helena, Napoleon's fame has been 
steadily growing. The ''Napoleonic Legend" — it is al- 
most impossible to ascertain the exact truth about all the 




status by Vila. 

The Last Days of Napoleon. 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 239 

deeds of such a man — is so full of incident and romance 
that it has fired all imaginations. Thus the emperor still 
has the most extravagant admirers, as he certainly had 
the most bitter calumniators ; but his enemy Chateaubriand 
spoke quite justly in saying, "The giant had to fall be- 
fore I could measure his greatness ! " 



-ooj»;c 



XLIX. NEY SHOT 

ONLY a few days after Waterloo, the English and 
Prussians again marched proudly into Paris. They 
camped in front of the Tuileries, and all Wellington's in- 
fluence had to be brought into play to prevent the Prussians 
from blowing up the Bridge of Jena, a lasting monument 
of their great defeats. 

The next day, the Second Restoration was an accom- 
plished fact, for Louis XVIII. reentered the capital, whence 
he had regretfully departed at the beginning of the Hundred 
Days, refusing to say farewell and predicting his speedy 
return. Talleyrand, whom the Prussians would gladly 
have blown up with the Bridge of Jena, now became prime 
minister, and immediately took all necessary measures to dis- 
band the French army, to proscribe many of those who 
had joined Napoleon, and to arrange the terms for a second 
treaty of Paris. 

Every day now it became more evident that even had 
Napoleon succeeded at Waterloo, he could never have 
maintained his position on the throne, for troops came 
pouring in on all sides until there were no less than eight 
hundred thousand foreigners in France. These immense 



240 MODERN FRANCE 

hordes of strangers naturally made their presence unpleas- 
antly felt ; for all of them owed some grudge to the coun- 
try which had dictated terms to them for so many years, 
only too often exercising her power unfairly. 

Not only were the usual demands now made for money 
and territory, but each nation also claimed the trophies and 
spoils which Napoleon had carried off. Thus the Louvre, 
which he had made a storehouse of Europe's chief treasures, 
lost them again, and they were restored to the places 
whence they had been taken. The only objects not re- 
coverable were the flags and military trophies which loyal 
keepers hastily destroyed, rather than let them revert to 
their former owners. 

On coming to France in 1814, the king had pardoned 
every one save the regicides (those who had voted the 
death of Louis XVL), but this time he felt that an exam- 
ple should be made of the leading traitors, especially of 
such military men as had betrayed their trust. A pro- 
scription list of fifty-seven persons was therefore made 
out, some of the victims being merely banished, while oth- 
ers were condemned to death. The first of the victims to 
be shot was Labedoyere, the man who had gone over to 
Napoleon with a whole regiment. But his companion 
(Lavalette) was saved from a similar fate by his clever 
wife, who, entering his prison in mourning garb and closely 
veiled, made him dress in her garments and thus effect an 
escape. 

Ney, the Bravest of the Brave, who had proved unfaith- 
ful to his new master, Louis XVI IL, when the growing 
success of Napoleon suddenly rekindled the devotion of 
years, was ruthlessly seized and tried, not by the usual 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 241 

military commission, but by a special court, which con- 
demned him to death. It was while his wife was at the 
palace door, still beseeching a hearing, and still hoping to 
save his life, that Ney was marched off to his doom. 
Standing on the very spot where his statue can now be 
seen in Paris, he not only refused to have his eyes band- 
aged, but gave the final signal himself, saying : " Do you 
not know that for twenty years past I have been accus- 
tomed to look straight at bullets and cannon balls .'^ 
Before God and my country, I protest against the ver- 
dict that condemns me. I appeal to mankind, to pos- 
terity, to God. Long live France! Soldiers, straight at 
the heart ! " 

The exile of Napoleon, and the execution of their idol, 
Ney, seemed unforgivable crimes to the soldiers, and many of 
them also resented the fact that Murat, who tried to stir up 
a rebellion in southern Italy in the hope of recovering his 
throne, was shot without being even granted a trial. Be- 
sides, in the south of France, where there were many Roy- 
aUst centers, several of Napoleon's officers were lynched 
by angry mobs, and we are told that more than seven thou- 
sand Bo'napartists were seized and banished, or imprisoned 
and put to death. This state of affairs, known as the Second 
White Terror (see page 117), helped to keep unfortunate 
France in a state of ferment for some time longer. 

Seeing that the Bourbons, —who ''remembered nothing 
and forgot nothing," —were making themselves very unpop- 
ular, Talleyrand cleverly made room for another minister, 
under whose sway the second treaty of Paris was concluded. 
Not only was France thereby reduced to the limits she had 
in 1790, but she was obUged to pay a huge war indemnity, 



242 



MODERN FRANCE 



and to maintain one hundred and fifty thousand soldiers for 
five years in frontier towns, in order to guard against further 
political changes. These conditions proved very humiliating 
to French pride, and the presence of the foreign soldiers be- 
came such torture that the French hastened to pay the last of 
the indemnity before it was due, and all breathed a sigh of 
relief when the occupation was thus brought to an end, two 
years sooner than had first been stipulated. 

The restored government, under the Charter, was fash- 
ioned somewhat upon the plan of the English constitu- 
tion, the two houses being called the Chamber of Peers 
and the Chamber of Deputies. But the king still insisted 
on "no compromise, no surrender," still called himself 
proudly '' king in spite of everything " {le roi qiiand meme\ 
and still persisted in ignoring the Empire, during which 
France had really reached its highest point of glory since 
the age of Charlemagne ; all of which naturally caused fric- 
tion and uneasiness. 

Although Louis XVIII. claimed that "the reign of 
swords is over; the reign of ideas has begun," there were 
many of his own party who did not approve of his ideas ; 
those, for instance, who were " more Royalist than the king 
himself," and the former Republicans whose reformatory 
and progressive work was being rapidly undone. Besides, 
the press was once more subjected to censure, and the 
schools were again placed under close religious supervision, 
thus inclining many to rebellion ; so there were student and 
other riots, which all too often resulted in disorder and 
bloodshed. 

Still, in spite of all these drawbacks, France was then 
better off than most of the other European countries, where 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 243 

not only the same spirit of dissatisfaction and unrest pre- 
vailed, but where the war debts were even greater; for 
Napoleon had cleverly made others pay for some of the 
wars by which he had brought France to her highest pitch 
of glory. 

L. DEATH OF LOUIS XVIII. 

TO make more secure the crown of the Bourbons in 
France, a law was passed excluding all Bonapartes 
from France forever ; but though in harmony with the 
king in some measures, the Chambers were sorely divided 
on other questions. It would be far too difficult to explain 
here the many political quarrels, and the numerous changes 
of ministers, in whose hands most of the responsibility of 
government rested ; for, while the king was clever and well 
informed, he was far more a man of letters than of busi- 
ness, and had received none of the training necessary to 
fit him for the difficult task of ruling. 

Louis XVIII. was a childless widower, far older than 
his years. His heir was his brother, the Count of Artois, 
whose eldest son, married to Louis XVI.'s daughter, was 
childless, too. Not to let the race die out, a marriage was 
arranged between the second son of the Count of Artois, 
called the Duke of Berry, and a daughter of the King of 
Naples ; and it was believed that their children would in 
time be heirs to the French crown. The festivities of this 
royal wedding (18 16) were the first in this reign, the king 
himself riding out in state to meet and welcome this new 
niece. Nevertheless, the honors of the Tuileries continued 
to be done by the Duchess of Angouleme, who was noted 




(244) 



LOUIS XVIII. (1814-1824) 245 

for her piety, the gravity of her demeanor, and a strangely 
hoarse voice, due, it was whispered, to her long and solitary 
imprisonment in the Temple (see page 126). 

Louis XVIII. was, besides, afflicted with the enormous 
appetite of his race, and therefore became so stout that 
he could hardly move. Each year this obesity increased, 
until during the last years of his life he never rose from 
the rolling chair in which he was moved from place to 
place. His brother, the Count of Artois, therefore had to 
represent him at court and military functions, and soon 
roused his jealousy by receiving the chief homage of faith- 
ful Royalists. 

The birth of a granddaughter to this prince — a daugh- 
ter to the Duke of Berry — proved a great disappoint- 
ment, because the people wanted a son and heir. And 
about a year later, when the Duke of Berry was putting 
his wife into her carriage at the door of the opera, he was 
mortally wounded by an enemy of the Royalists. This 
assassin hoped that by thus murdering the only member 
of the royal family likely to have heirs, he would prevent 
the Bourbons from continuing to reign in France. Imag- 
ine, therefore, the delight of the RoyaUsts when they 
heard soon after this that a son had been born to the 
Duke and Duchess of Berry ! In their enthusiasm, they 
called the boy " The Child of Miracle," and the ''Child of 
Europe," quite as often as by his real title, the Duke of Bor- 
deaux ; and they even began a subscription to purchase 
for his benefit the royal castle of Chambord (shaN-bor') — 
then in the market. It is because they bestowed this 
castle upon him that this member of the royal family has 
since been known mostly as the Count of Chambord. 



246 MODERN FRANCE 

It was the year after this prince's birth that Napoleon 
died at fifty-one at St. Helena, his death defeating the 
hopes of those who had longed to see him return, and who 
had meanwhile been plotting and biding their time. With 
Napoleon I. gone, Bonapartists began to turn to his son, 
Napoleon II., who was a semi-prisoner at the court of 
Austria in his grandfather's charge. Still, this child of ten 
was a poor substitute for the man of genius who had made 
all Europe tremble, and no one was anxious to have any of 
his uncles govern France as regent, for none of them had 
shown political or military abilities. Napoleon's death at St. 
Helena, a prisoner, made a martyr of one who had already 
long been a hero, and the memoirs and letters printed by 
his friends, served not only to keep his memory enshrined 
in the hearts of Frenchmen, but to give him even greater 
importance dead than while alive and a prisoner. 

After the conquest of France by the allied armies in 
18 1 5, the " Holy Alliance " had been formed, whereby the 
rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia (and later France 
also) pledged themselves to discourage all revolutionary 
ideas in their own lands and elsewhere. So when the 
Spaniards insisted upon having a constitutional monarchy, 
and the Spanish Parliament detained their king a prisoner, 
the Holy Alliance asked France to interfere in behalf of 
this Bourbon by sending troops into Spain. 

The French armies, under the command of the Duke of 
Angouleme, therefore invaded Spain, entered Madrid, fol- 
lowed the Spanish army southward, and after taking the 
Trocadero (tro-ca-da'ro), freed the king. It, is in com- 
memoration of this glorious episode, that the Parisians 
erected the Trocadero, a large building where popular 



CHARLES X. (1824-1830) 247 

entertainments are now given, and one of the many show 
places of their beautiful city. 

Meantime, the king was becoming ever more infirm, 
and was falling more and more under the influence of those 
who would fain have had him return to the absolute mo- 
narchic system. On his deathbed, suddenly realizing that 
his brother — bigoted and impetuous — might make a worse 
mess of things, the king laid his hand upon the head of 
the young Count of Chambord, and warningly said, '' Let 
Charles X. carefully guard the crown of this child ! " 

Louis XVIII. is the author of the famous saying, " Punc- 
tuality is the politeness of kings." He was the last ruler 
who died and was buried in France, where he had reigned 
for ten years without having ever been crowned. As soon 
as he had breathed his last, the customary solemn an- 
nouncement was made, " The king is dead ! " followed after 
a brief but impressive pause by '' Long live King Charles 
X." ; for Louis XVI. 's second brother was now to mount 
the throne of France in his turn (1824). 



-<K>J«^C 



LL CHARLES X. 

CHARLES X., kindly and affable, although very nar- 
row-minded, was a true gentleman of the old school, 
priding himself greatly upon his conservatism, and saying, 
" Lafayette and I are the only men who have not changed 
since 1789." But when times change as much as they 
had in France from 1789 to 1824, it is anything but a 
merit to make no change in one's self. Charles X. so 
loathed the idea of a constitutional government, that he 



248 MODERN FRANCE 

often stated, " I'd rather earn my bread than be King of 
England ! " Such being his views, he aimed to become an 
arbitrary ruler, and, to reach his ends, did his best to win 
the hearts of the people by appearing among them in an 
easy, friendly way. Once he even thrust aside his guards 
by a graceful gesture, crying, *' No pikes ! " to show that 
he felt no need of protection when surrounded by loyal 
subjects. 

Charles X. first revealed how thoroughly he considered 
himself " king by divine right " when he arranged to be 
crowned at Rheims with all the old-time observances. 
For his anointment, it is said, the priests used the last drop 
of oil from the sacred ampulla, which was supposed to 
have been brought by a dove for Clovis's coronation.^ 
This vial had been ground to pieces upon the paving- 
stones during the Revolution, only one small fragment — 
to which- still clung a drop of oil — being rescued and 
carefully preserved. Some Royalists now claim that it 
is because the /ast drop of this sacred oil was used for 
Charles X.'s coronation, that there have since been no 
more anointed kings of France. 

Then, too, just as if the progress of science had not 
demonstrated the folly of many of the old superstitions, 
Charles X. claimed that, having been duly anointed, his 
touch had the power of curing scrofula, — a belief which 
exposed him to the ridicule of all well-informed people. 
But there were other things which annoyed a progressive 
nation even more ; for instance, the king asked for 
;^200, 000,000 to indemnify the emigres for property lost 
during the Revolution. But, whereas this sum seemed far 

1 See S^orj/ of Old France, p. 51, 



¥Wl^ff¥WWW^^'^?^^^^^mm 




. ^'!^^--r^W 



From an Old Prim. 



The Coronation of Charles X. (249) 



250 MODERN FRANCE 

too great to those who considered that the nobles should 
have remained in France to guard their own interests, it 
seemed pitifully small to the emigres themselves, who 
would fain have seen all the present owners of their 
family estates rudely dispossessed. 

Then, too, Charles X. placed on the retired list many 
officers who had served under the Republic and the Em- 
pire, which sorely grieved the soldiers who had become 
attached to these leaders. Shortly after this, the king had 
a law passed punishing with death any one guilty of such 
sacrilege as robbing a church; and many people, believ- 
ing that the changes they resented were mainly the work 
of the king's confessor, — in an effort to make the church 
again supreme, — began to murmur against the influence 
of priests in the government. 

Hoping to stem the tide of criticism, and to gain his 
ends with less friction, the king further restrained the 
liberty of the press, allowing no books or papers to be 
issued unless they upheld his views, or at least did not 
oppose them. This narrow-minded tyranny could only 
injure his cause, and Lafayette shrewdly predicted what 
would happen, when he exclaimed during his last visit to 
the United States (1824), " France cannot be happy under 
Bourbon rule, and we shall soon have to send them 
adrift!" 

Still, Charles X. could not help knowing that his rule 
was unpopular, for the Chambers now began to oppose 
him openly, and the National Guard clamored (1827), 
" Long live the Charter," and " Long live the Liberty of 
the Press," instead of greeting him as usual with cries of 
" Long live the king ! " In his indignation at such be- 



CHARLES X. (1824-1830) 251 

havior, Charles disbanded this force, rashly allowing- each 
man, however, to retain his musket and uniform. 

Soldiers and journalists were not the only men punished 
for expressing their views too openly, for the poet Be- 
ranger (ba-raN-zha') was arrested for writing poems about 
Napoleon and patriotic songs which were eagerly sung. 
Then, wishing to soothe popular discontent by trifling con- 
cessions, Charles authorized the formation of a new ministry, 
which allowed a little more freedom to the press, and 
put an end to the " black room system," by which private 
letters were frequently opened and read to ascertain 
whether the writers were loyal. 

Meantime, the Greeks, weary of Turkish oppression, had 
been fighting for freedom since 1821. Their bravery, the 
cruelty of the Turks at the massacre of Chios (kl'os), and 
the fact that Lord Byron lost his hfe in an attempt to help 
them, at length induced Russia, England, and France to 
send their united fleets, which sorely defeated the Turks 
at Navarino (na-va-ree'no, 1827). French troops then 
landed in Greece, whence they soon drove out an army 
of the Turks; and shortly after this, Turkey recognized 
Greece as the free and independent country she has been 
ever since. 

LII. REVOLUTION OF 1830 

THE Dey of Algiers' having struck the French 
consul,— thereby insulting France, — a French force 
set out from Toulon (1827) to punish him. But, popular 
as the expedition otherwise was, it enraged the French to 







.*»' 



tSi'-^^r^i^i : , 










(252) 



CHARLES X. (1824-1830) 253 

see it commanded by Bourmont (boor-moN'), a general 
who had deserted Napoleon, and gone over to the enemy, 
on the eve of Waterloo. After the French fleet had bom- 
barded Algiers, Bourmont easily seized it, finding there 
treasure enough to pay the costs of the expedition, and 
releasing many Christian captives held by the cruel Al- 
gerine pirates. This taking of Algiers proved the first step 
in the acquisition of what was to become the finest colonial 
possession of France. 

Meantime, the situation had not improved in France. 
In a new attempt to revert to absolutism, the king ap- 
pointed a prime minister whom the Chambers refused to 
support, declaring they did not approve of his views 
(1830). To punish them, Charles X. again suppressed the 
liberty of the press, and dissolved the Chambers, at the 
same time ordering some unconstitutional changes in 
the electoral laws, — which proved the last straw. 

On the morrow, notwithstanding the royal prohibition, 
the newspapers appeared as usual, printing their stric- 
tures so freely that popular excitement reached an intense 
pitch on the 27th, 28th, and 29th of July. The rage of the 
Parisians reached its climax when it became known that 
the king had given Marmont (mar-moN') — the first of the 
marshals to desert Napoleon in 1814 — command of the 
troops detailed to restore order in Paris. Hearing this, 
the disbanded National Guards donned their uniforms, 
seized their muskets, and hurried out into the streets, 
where they promptly erected great barricades, on top of 
which they planted the beloved red, white, and blue flag 
of the Republic and the Empire. 

Meantime, the royal family were quietly sojourning at 



254 



MODERN FRANCE 



St. Cloud, deeming the disturbance nothing worse than 
one of the too frequent riots of the day. But serious 
fighting began in the streets, and finally some of the 
troops joined the rebels. Three days later, the Parisians 
had secured possession of the Tuileries, Louvre, and other 
public buildings, which they did not plunder or injure 







- K. • M - ■ ,' ' 'It *"V J&r 








Drawing by Jeiurj.i. 



A Barricade in Paris, 1830. 



in any way, but above which they triumphantly hoisted 
their tricolored flag. It was the sight of this flag which 
made the king suddenly realize the gravity of the situa- 
tion, and drove him first to the Trianon and then to 
Rambouillet (raN-boo-ye'), a few miles farther on. Here, 
finding himself deserted by all save a handful of faithful 
and mainly clerical partisans, Charles X. abdicated, as 
did also his son, the Dauphin, Duke of Angouleme, 



CHARLES X. (1824-1830) 255 

in favor of their grandson and nephew, the young Count 
of Chambord, whom they fancied the people would gladly 
welcome. 

But this abdication came too late ; the people had al- 
ready placed Lafayette at the head of a temporary gov- 
ernment, and had given the Duke of Orleans command of 
the troops. On learning that the rebels were advancing 
toward Rambouillet, threatening his liberty and perchance 
his life, Charles X. fled with his family to England, whence 
he afterwards went to Austria, where he died in 1836. 

" As Charles X. had left the crown to his grandson, the 
Count of Chambord, the Royalists thenceforth persistently 
called this boy Henry V., although he never reigned. He 
was, however, the legitimate heir to the crown of France, 
and, as long as he lived, his faction hoped to see him at the 
head of a restored monarchy. When he died (1883), leav- 
ing no children, his rights passed to his cousins, the Or- 
leanists, a branch of the family descended from the brother 
of Louis XIV. 

During the brief period of the Restoration (18 14-1830), 
Lamartine (la-mar-teen'), Hu'go, Guizot (gee-zo'), and other 
writers (Delavigne, Beranger, Thierry) enriched French 
literature with poems, histories, and historic novels which 
are now considered classics ; the painters of the epoch 
(Gericault, Delacroix, Delaroche, Ary Scheffer, Leopold 
Robert, and Ingres) are represented by masterpieces in 
the Louvre and elsewhere ; and scientists (Cuvier, Arago, 
and Ampere) made invaluable contributions in their dif- 
ferent branches of learning. During this period, also, the 
first savings-bank was founded, and Paris was embeUished 
by fine buildings (the Bourse, the Church of St. Vincent 



256 MODERN FRANCE 

de Paul, and the Chapelle Expiatoire — see pages 92, 103). 
It was, however, just after this period that the famous July 
Column was erected as a monument to the six thousand 
victims of the Revolution of 1830- — which is known also 
as the Second Revolution or the Revolution of Charles X. 



ooJOio* 

LIII. THE ORLEANISTS 

BELIEVING that nothing could be better for France 
at this stage of proceedings than a real constitu- 
tional monarchy, with a king of the people's own choos- 
ing, the provisional government begged Lafayette to visit 
and sound the Duke of Orleans. Descended from the 
brother of Louis XIV., and eldest son of the abhorred 
Philip Equality (see page 105), Louis Philippe (fee-leep') had 
won the approval of the nation by fighting at Valmy and Je- 
mappes for the French Republic. But since Dumouriez had 
lured him from the army (see page 94), this youth had 
lived in exile, teaching school in Switzerland, traveling on 
horseback in the United States, and becoming a thorough 
democrat. Even after royalty had been restored in France, 
he insisted that his large family of children be brought up 
to attend the public schools, and become independent of 
circumstances by being fitted to earn their own living. 
Ever since the return of the Bourbons to France, this 
Duke of Orleans had lived in state in the Palais Royal, 
and, although not in sympathy with the government, he 
had nevertheless been received at the Tuileries as next of 
kin to the royal family. 

Lafayette introduced his mission to the Duke of Or- 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 257 

leans by saying, " You know that I am a Republican, and 
consider the American constitution the most perfect! " 

" I am of the same opinion," promptly replied the duke. 
" No one could have been two years in America and not 
share that view. But do you think that constitution could 
be adopted in France in its present condition, with the pres- 
ent state of popular opinion ? " 

" No," rejoined Lafayette. " What France needs is a 
popular monarchy, surrounded by republican — thoroughly 
republican — institutions." 

"There I quite agree with you," said Louis PhiHppe. 

As their opinions so thoroughly coincided, all prelimi- 
naries were quickly settled, and Lafayette himself pre- 
sented Louis Philippe to the people, saying, '* Behold, 
the best of republics ! " Thus, on the 9th of August, 
1830, the "citizen king," Louis Philippe, swore to respect 
the revised Charter, and, taking possession of the deserted 
Tuileries, began his reign as " King of the French," — so 
called because he was chosen by the people. 

Selected by the moneyed middle class, ^ the bourgeoisie 
(boor-zhwa-zee'), — Louis PhiHppe naturally catered to 
their wishes, allowing the real authority to rest mainly in 
the hands of such ministers as Guizot and Thiers (tyar). 
Although the Charter purported to be republican in nature, 
only citizens paying above ^40 taxes were entitled to vote, 
so the ballot was restricted to some 200,000 voters, and 
therefore hardly represented the wishes of the whole 
country. 

The very year after Louis Philippe began his reign, a 
demonstration was made by the Legitimists in favor of the 
Count of Chambord, the mob surrounding the Tuileries 



258 



MODERN FRANCE 



and breaking into a church near by. But this disturbance 
was promptly quelled without bloodshed, by using fire 
engines against the rebels, who scattered as promptly 
before streams of water as before grapeshot ! Wishing 




The Tuileries. 

to prevent his wife and daughters from hearing the rude 
remarks frequently made by people passing directly under 
the palace windows, Louis Philippe now had the street 
removed farther back, and separated from the palace by 
an iron railing, a thicket of shrubbery, and a deep moat. 
" My wife shall never be exposed to hear all the horrors 
Marie Antoinette heard there in the course of three years ! " 
was his grim comment, for Louis Philippe was a much 
firmer man than Louis XVL, although no better husband 
or father. 

Whatever France does is apt to be imitated by the rest 
of Europe. Thus the Revolution of 1830 inspired Poland 
to try — in vain — to recover her independence ; induced 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 259 

Belgium to break away from Holland, with which it had been 
united in 1 8 14 (see page 221); and led Italy to rebel — un- 
successfully — against the ever-increasing tyranny of Aus- 
tria. In fact, people everywhere began to demand more 
liberty, so European kings hotly blamed Louis Philippe for 
every concession he made, while most of his subjects seemed 
to think he was inclined to play the autocrat. He had, be- 
sides, to contend continually with various political parties 
in France ; that of the Legitimists, who wished to place 
the Count of Chambord on the throne ; that of the Bona- 
partists, who wished to restore the Empire ; and that of 
the Red Repubhcans, or partisans of the old Republican sys- 
tem. This constant rivalry of parties gave rise to strikes, 
riots, and plots galore, as well as to several conspiracies 
against the king's hfe. 

Belgium, having finally made good her independence, — 
thanks to the aid of the French, and English at the siege 
of Antwerp, — offered its crown to one of Louis Philippe's 
sons ; but the " citizen king," perceiving that an acceptance 
might cause jealousy among the other nations, declined 
this honor, which was passed on to Leopold. Still, it 
seemed decreed by fate that one of Louis Philippe's chil- 
dren should rule over the Belgians, for Leopold, being a 
widower, soon after his accession married Louise, one of 
the French king's accomplished daughters. 

In 1832, France was visited by a terrible epidemic of 
cholera, which, starting in India, rapidly made its way 
around the globe, causing an awful loss of life. In Paris, 
where it raged 189 days, it carried off no less than 20,000 
victims, but the courage displayed by the royal family — 
who visited the hospitals and stricken districts and took 



26o MODERN FRANCE 

great pains to organize speedy relief measures — greatly 
endeared them to the French people. Among the victims 
of this epidemic was the prime minister Casimir Perier 
(ca-zee-meer' pa-rya'), one of many statesmen who helped 
to direct the government of France during this reign. 



aXKoo- 



LIV. INTERESTING EVENTS 

TWO events occurred in 1832, which will doubtless 
interest you, and which helped to strengthen Louis 
Philippe's position. First came the one which touched all 
the Bonapartists closely. ' You must know that Napoleon's 
son — called the King of Rome while his father was in 
power — had since 18 14 been detained at his grandfather's 
court at Vienna, where he was brought up as much like a 
German as possible, and was given the title Duke of Reich- 
stadt (rlK^shtat). All his questions in regard to his father 
long remained unanswered, but in spite of the fact that he 
was allowed no French attendants, he remained devoted 
to his native country, and, being of an ardent, imaginative 
temperament, positively idolized the father he could barely 
recall. 

From the first. Emperor Francis had discouraged all 
hope of his grandson's ever returning to France, and had 
guarded the youth carefully to prevent his getting in touch 
with the Bonapartist faction. So, although the Duke of 
Reichstadt — as he was now exclusively called — was given 
a very careful education, he never received any of the mes- 
sages or legacies left by his dying father. He soon showed 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 261 

^like all his mother's family — tendencies to consump- 
tion ; but, having chosen a military career, he deemed it a 
disgrace to shirk any of the duties or fatigues of his calling. 
He therefore so overtaxed his strength, that his grand- 
father had to place him under arrest in order to compel 
him to take the necessary rest. Even such drastic meas- 
ures proved vain, as a rapid decline had already set in. So 
his mother, Marie Louise, was hastily summoned from her 
duchy at Parma to his deathbed at Schonbrunn, and saw 
him laid to rest in the ancestral vault in Vienna. 

The death of " Napoleon II.," at twenty-one years of 
age, proved an awful blow to the Bonapartists, who had 
called him *' the Son of the Man," "the Child of Destiny," 
and "the Eaglet" {I' Aigloii), and were merely waiting until 
he grew up, to attempt to place him on the throne, where 
they felt he would make a record for himself, because they 
knew he possessed more than ordinary intellectual gifts. 
By the death of the Duke of Reichstadt, Napoleon's broth- 
ers and their children became sole heirs of his glory ; but, as 
we have seen, those brothers were not popular in France, 
and it seemed so difficult to make a wise selection among 
their numerous children that the Bonapartists' hopes now 
sank to a low ebb. 

The second important occurrence of this year was a 
romantic attempt on the part of the young Duchess of 
Berry (see page 243), assuming the title of regent, to secure 
the throne of France for her son, the Count of Chambord 
(or Duke of Bordeaux). Starting from Italy, —where 
she had secretly married a second time, — this lady entered 
southern France in disguise, met many Royahsts there, and 
worked her way northward until she reached the ever loyal 



262 MODERN FRANCE 

Vendee region. Few of the royal partisans, however, were 
ready to rise in her son's favor, and her presence and plots 
becoming known to the government, orders were issued 
to arrest her. 

For a time, by assuming disguises, and by the devoted 
aid of her Royalist friends, the duchess managed to escape 
capture, but she was finally caught and detained in a for- 
tress, until her second marriage was fully proved, — although 
she foolishly made a mystery about it. Her silly conduct 
caused so much ridicule that no one could ever take her 
seriously again in France ; thus her rash and untimely at- 
tempt spoiled her son's chances for many a year, and 
strengthened the position of the Orleans family. 

Three years later (1835), while the king was reviewing 
his troops in Paris, an Italian Republican attempted to 
kill him by means of an infernal machine. The king 
himself was uninjured, but several generals, soldiers, and 
spectators were killed or wounded. The author of this 
crime and his accomplices were duly tried and put to 
death, and new laws were made as speedily as possible to 
prevent such plots in the future. 

It seemed, however, that Louis Philippe was never to 
reign in peace. In 1836, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, son 
of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense, suddenly appeared on 
the bridge of Strassburg and made a speech to the French 
troops, claiming to be heir of Napoleon II.'s rights to the 
throne, and proposing to restore the Empire. By his 
sudden appearance and eloquent appeal to a glorious mili- 
tary past, Louis Napoleon won over one regiment ; but 
before he could proceed any farther, he was seized by the 
police and borne off to Paris. Then, after a brief trial, he 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 263 

was contemptuously shipped to America, and bidden never 
to return. 

The following year was marked by the marriage of the 
king's eldest son, Ferdinand, Duke of Orleans, and it was in 
honor of his wedding that Versailles — which had been set 
aside as a museum for the past grandeur of France — was 
first opened to the public. Here are exhibited the rooms and 
furniture used by Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis XVI., 
the coronation carriage of Napoleon I., and in a wonderful 
long gallery you can see pictures of the many battles in 
which the French of all ages have won undying laurels. 

The fact that Louis Philippe's ministers secured a 
popular law for primary education (1833), under which 
public schools were organized everywhere in France, is 
one of the great glories of this reign. But the country 
was now in a thriving condition, and with increasing 
wealth and comfort, the people were able to demand edu- 
cation for their children. There was, besides, peace at 
home, although France was still at war in Algeria, and it 
seemed for a time as if she might become involved in the 
quarrels between the ruler of Egypt and his master, the 
Sultan. .Trouble later arose with Mexico, but a French 
fleet under the Prince of Joinville (zhwaN-veel'), one of the 
king's sons, soon obtained due satisfaction. 

It was during the early part of Louis Philippe's reign 
that Lafayette quietly passed away (1834). We have 
seen how this nobleman went to America to help the 
United States in their struggle for independence (i//?)- 
He returned home for a few months in 1779, but fought 
again in America until the surrender of Yorktown, and 
then, after five peaceful years with his family, made a 



264 MODERN FRANCE 

third trip to the United States. Later, in France, La- 
fayette became a member of the States-General, com- 
manded the National Guard during the trying period from 
1789 to 1 791, and helped found a club (the Feuillants). 
But while leading an army against the Austrians, he in- 
curred the suspicions of the ''terrorists" and was forced 
to flee from France. Although he took refuge on neu- 
tral soil, he was nevertheless arrested by the Austrians, and 
detained in prison five years. His devoted wife shared his 
captivity at Ol'miitz, while Washington vainly interceded 
for his release. It was not till 1799, under the Directory, 
that Bonaparte obtained the liberation of the man whom he 
contemptuously termed a " noodle," simply because he could 
not understand the lofty and disinterested — if not practical 
— motives which always ruled Lafayette's conduct. 

After serving in the French legislature during the Hun- 
dred Days, and again in 1 818-1824, Lafayette paid a 
fourth visit to the United States, where he received a great 
ovation, the Americans not having forgotten the services 
he had rendered them. For the next five years he proved 
influential in the opposition party, and in 1830 again be- 
came commander of the National Guard during the Second 
Revolution. Having always advocated a constitutional 
monarchy, he was, as we have seen, glad to introduce 
Louis Philippe as king to the French. 

Thus Lafayette helped make French history for about 
forty years, and played an important part in three revolu- 
tions — one in America and two in France. He was buried 
in Paris, where his grave is often visited by Americans. 
American school children have also contributed the money 
to erect a statue of him in Paris. 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 265 

LV. SECOND FUNERAL OF NAPOLEON 

HAVING distinguished himself in Mexico, the Prince 
of Joinville was rewarded by being appointed ( 1840) 
to convey the remains of Napoleon from St. Helena to 
France. 

Although nineteen years had then passed by since " the 
Little Corporal" had breathed his last, there were still 
many veterans in France who continually talked about 
him, and the flood of literature in his honor had made 
every one familiar with his doings. The French, remem- 
bering how they had reached the highest point of their 
power during Napoleon's reign, now felt it fitting that his 
last wish should be fulfilled. So permission was secured 
from the English government, and all was prepared, not 
only for the long journey, but for a grand public funeral 
on the arrival of the body in France. 

While the papers kept publishing Imperial reminis- 
cences, Louis Napoleon, who had been living in London 
for some time, suddenly landed at Boulogne, with a few 
friends and a tame eagle, to repeat his rash Strassburg 
performance. But this time the soldiers, not carried away 
by his name or eloquence, promptly arrested him. Instead 
of being merely exiled, this prince was now locked up in the 
fortress of Ham (ax), where he spent the next five years in 
solitary confinement. 

On first hearing that he was not to be exiled, Louis 
Napoleon exclaimed, "At least, I shall die in France!" and 
when informed that he was condemned to perpetual impris- 
onment, he shrewdly inquired, "How long does perpet- 
ual last in France ? " To pass the time he studied a 



266 MODERN FRANCE 

great deal and wrote a book ; later on he therefore often 
playfully referred to his advanced course in the " University 
of Ham." At the end of five years, taking advantage of the 
fact that many workmen were passing in and out while 
repairing the fortress where he was imprisoned, Louis 
Napoleon, with his servant's aid, cleverly disguised him- 
self as a workman, and, carrying a plank, marched out of 
prison under the very noses of the sentinels ! 

Meanwhile, on the day that Louis Napoleon was ar- 
rested at Boulogne, the Prince of Joinville landed at St. 
Helena, where Napoleon's tomb was opened and the coffin 
lid unscrewed, so that some of those who had laid the 
emperor to rest could identify the body. To their amaze- 
ment they still plainly recognized the features they had 
once loved so well, the body being remarkably well pre- 
served. Conveyed to the waiting frigate, Napoleon's 
body was then borne to France, where it was enthusi- 
astically welcomed, and taken in state along the Seine, 
under the great Arch of Triumph, down the thronged 
Champs Elysees, and across the bridge, to find a final 
resting place under the great dome of the Invalides. The 
funeral ceremony was most awe-inspiring, as is also the 
place where Napoleon now rests, surrounded by tokens of 
his glory, with his brothers Joseph and Jerome and some 
of his faithful marshals sleeping their last sleep only a few 
feet away from his sarcopViagus. 

Here Napoleon's remains were guarded by rapidly 
diminishing numbers of his veterans, who delighted in 
relating to visitors all they knew about ** the Little Cor- 
poral," " Gray Coat," " the Eagle " — some of the many 
nicknames affectionately bestowed upon him. In the 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 



267 



church beyond his grave still hang many of the flags he 
won as trophies, fast falling to pieces, it is true, yet hon- 
ored as the old tat- 
tered, blood-stained, 
bullet-riddled flags 
of the glorious First 
Empire ! 

The fact that France 
nearly came to warfare 
with England, Russia, 
and Turkey over the 
Eastern Question, 
helped to determine 
Louis Philippe in 1840 
to provide proper de- 
fenses for the city of 
Paris. Within the next 
few years, at the cost 
of some ^30,000,000, 
the capital was inclosed 

— for the eighth time 

— in a new and more 




The Tomb of Napoleon. 



extensive belt of ramparts, a circle of forts further serving 
to strengthen its position. 

While the younger sons of the king were distinguishing 
themselves in the army and navy, the eldest, most talented, 
and best-beloved, the Prince of Orleans, was making many 
friends at home, so that the French looked eagerly for- 
ward to the reign of so promising a prince, and took great 
pride in his beautiful wife and young son, the little Count 
of Paris, who had been publicly baptized in Notre Dame. 



268 MODERN FRANCE 

But the object of these hopes, while driving out of the 
city one day to join his wife and children in the country, 
saw his horses suddenly take fright and run away. In 
their mad rush, the prince was thrown out on the pave- 
ment, and so seriously injured that he died a few hours 
later. On the spot where this talented young man thus 
perished, now stands the Chapel St. Ferdinand, containing 
his tomb, one of whose statues is the work of his artistic 
sister Marie ; but his body rests in the Orleans mausoleum 
(at Dreux). 

By the early death of the Prince of Orleans, a small 
child became the direct heir of Louis Philippe, and as 
it seemed likely that the king would die before this 
boy could attain years of discretion, the French began to 
dread a long regency. Besides, the deceased prince had 
named as guardian and regent for his son one of his 
brothers (the Duke of Nemours) who was so greatly 
disliked that this child and his cause became unpopular 
in France. 

The country, however, continued peaceful for some 
years, both at home and abroad, excepting the war in 
Alge'ria. The pleasant relations with England were 
marked by Queen Victoria's visit to France, — the first 
time an English sovereign had landed in the country since 
the old days of Henry VIII. and the Field of the Cloth of 
Gold (1520),^ — and by a return visit of Louis Philippe 
and his Queen Marie Amelie (a-ma-lee') to London. The 
friendship thus formed between the royal families of 
France and England was to continue even in adversity, 
when Louis Philippe sought refuge in Great Britain. 

1 Story of Old France, p. 231. 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 269 

LVI. THE ALGERIAN CAMPAIGN 

JUST before the Revolution of 1830 and the flight of 
Charles X., the French forces under Bourmont, as we 
have seen, bombarded and seized the city of Algiers. The 
treasure this general seized and the slaves he freed make 
the story of this capture read Uke a romance, and the sor- 
rowful departure of the defeated Dey, with a train of fifty- 
five veiled women, must have been picturesque in the 
extreme. Having seized the most important city of Algeria, 
the French decided to keep it, and gradually to extend 
their conquests ; the result was an Algerian war that lasted, 
with brief intervals of peace, for some fifteen years. To 
carry it on, both men and money were needed, and, as 
many members of the Chambers were not in favor of the 
project, both were hard to obtain. This gave the French 
general the idea of enlisting and training native troops, 
and he thus raised the first regiment of '* Zouaves " 
(zoo-av'), whose bagging Turkish trousers and bright caps 
(fezzes) attracted much attention, and were afterwards 
copied in the uniforms of some French soldiers. 

The conquest of Oran' in western Algeria, so roused the 
anger of the rehgious chief, Abd-el-Ka'dir, that he began 
in 1832 what threatened to prove a disastrous campaign 
for France. BKndly obeyed by his followers, very clever, 
and brave almost beyond belief, this chief proved no mean 
antagonist; still, the superior arms of the French got the 
better of his daring, for after two defeats he signed a 
peace, which lasted, however, but a year. Then the 
struggle was renewed, and a terrible battle took place in a 
defile, where, although at first victorious, the French could 



270 



MODERN FRANCE 



not long maintain their position. During their retreat 
many of these brave men were slain, their heads serving 
as ornaments for the pikes of their foes, who displayed 
these trophies with fiendish glee. 

But, with new forces, and under better conditions, the 
French soon attacked Abd-el-Kadir again, destroyed his 
deserted capital, and again defeated him in battle. Then 
the French turned their attention to eastern Algeria, and, 
after failing in a first attempt to secure Constantine, made 
a new and successful venture with larger forces, until 
they became masters of nearly all Algeria. 

Indeed, their only remaining foe was Abd-el-Kadir, who 
suddenly attacked and defeated a French army (1839), 
laid waste the French settlements, and kept large forces 
busy for several years before the country was reconquered. 
In this war the Orleans princes won many laurels. One 
of the most gallant actions took place at the fort Mazagran^ 
(1840), where 123 Frenchmen held 12,000 natives at bay 
for three days. The most picturesque episode, however, 
was the taking of Abd-el-Kadir's camp, where much treasure 
and many prisoners were secured. Abd-el-Kadir himself, 
surrounded by French soldiers, leaped his horse right over 
their heads, and escaped to Morocco, where he induced 
the Sultan to help him once more. But, after the French 
had won the battle of Isly (eez-lee'), the Moroccans were 
ready to submit, and Abd-el-Kadir had to flee to the moun- 
tains. Tracked to a large cave, but refusing to surrender, 
one of his tribes was put to death by the smoke from fires 
built by the pursuers — one of Napoleon's old generals re- 
marking, on this occasion, " What would be a crime against 
civilization in Europe, may be a justifiable necessity in 




(271) 



272 MODERN FRANCE 

Africa!" At last Abd-el-Kadir surrendered (1845), ^^ 
condition that he should be sent to Egypt ; but the French 
government, refusing to honor this promise, kept him a 
prisoner in France for seven years, and then set him free 
on his agreement not to return to his native land. 

Algeria, being conquered, has proved an important 
French possession, although there have been frequent 
clashes between conquerors and natives. The population, 
as a rule, is now loyal to France, thanks to whose pro- 
tection the country is both rich and prosperous, and is 
rapidly becoming a favorite winter resort for invalids and 
tourists. 

The Algerian war, lasting through almost all the reign 
of Louis Philippe, proved a source of great pride and in- 
terest to the French people, in spite of the great expense, 
although they have been accused of being at that time en- 
tirely taken up with the sordid desire of getting rich. It was 
during this reign, also, that France acquired her first inter- 
est in Madagas'car, and that the first French railways were 
constructed. Unfortunately, too many of these were be- 
gun at once, so that funds ran short before they were 
finished ; as a result, the building of many lines was left to 
private companies, and the government now owns only part 
of the great network of rails that covers France. 

Among discoveries of the time the most far-reaching 
was that of the scientist Daguerre (da-gar'), who invented 
the process since known as daguerreotyping, the fore- 
runner of photography. Then, too, the novelist and play- 
wright Dumas (dii-ma'), whose romances were to delight 
posterity, and who had begun his brilliant career as secre- 
tary to Louis Philippe, began to write his famous series of 



LOUIS PHILIPPE (1830-1848) 273 

historical novels. But his literary work, however thrilling, 
is less artistic than that of Balzac', who ably and minutely 
depicted all phases of French character. 

Among other writers who lend glory to Louis Philippe's 
reign, are the novelists George Sand and Victor Hugo, the 
poets Beranger and Lamartine, some noted essayists (St. 
Beuve and De Tocqueville), and great historians (Sismondi, 
Guizot, Michelet, Martin, and Thiers). Scientists also 
(Cuvier, Laplace, Arago, and Cousin) continued to enrich 
the world with their discoveries, and great artists (Vernet, 
Delaroche, Ary Scheffer, and Ingres) painted masterpieces 
to delight the eyes of coming generations as well as their 
own. 



-•oj*:©*^ 



LVII. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 

THE main cause of the Revolution of 1848 was the 
displeasure of the people in general at not obtaining 
a better system of franchise, for which they had long been 
clamoring. The French people justly said that the two 
hundred thousand voters included only the rich -class, and 
did not fairly represent the whole nation. In their eager- 
ness to obtain what they felt was their due, the Republi- 
cans began giving public banquets, where speeches were 
openly made against the government. These banquets 
were permitted at first ; but when they had greatly heated 
the people's imagination, an attempt was suddenly made 
to stop them, — an unwise measure which roused such in- 
dignation that even the National Guard now began to shout, 
*' Long live Reform " instead of " Long live the King ! " 



274 



MODERN FRANCE 



The minister (Guizot) therefore resigned, and Louis 
Philippe was just preparing to make some of the long- 
denied concessions, when a fight suddenly broke out be- 
tween a band of 
armed rioters and 
the regular troops. 
A score or more of 
the rioters having 
been killed, the mob 
paraded their bodies 
around the city, ut- 
tering rabid cries of 
"Vengeance!" 
Then Paris rose up 
in wrath ; in the 
course of the next 
night, many of the 
streets were blocked 
with barricades, 
hastily constructed 
from uptorn paving- 
stones, or any other 
material upon which 
the rioters could lay hands. Each of these barricades was 
patrolled by rebels, who challenged all who attempted to 
go by, uttering bloodthirsty threats against those who 
happened not to share their political views. 

The next day a raging, howling mob surrounded the 
Tuileries, and Louis Philippe, thinking his chances gone, 
hastily abdicated in favor of his grandson, and fled with 
his wife, mournfully repeating, " Just like Charles X. ! 




From an Old PHnt. 

Martyrs of Liberty, 1848. 



SECOND REPUBLIC (1848-1852) 275 

Just like Charles X. ! " The widowed Duchess of Orleans, 
afraid to remain in the palace, where she and her two small 
sons were in danger, hurried off with them to the Chamber, 
to have the Count of Paris recognized king, in Louis 
Philippe's stead. But the mob had already invaded and 
dissolved this Chamber, and had estabhshed a provisional 
government under seven prominent men, who were con- 
sulting at the city hall. Finding it impossible to return to 
the palace, — into which the mob had meanwhile broken, 
and where a ghastly scene of riot and pillage was taking 
place, — the Duchess of Orleans also fled to England with 
her two children. Her eldest son, the Count of Paris, 
now became the Orleanist Pretender, just as the Count of 
Chambord was the Legitimist Pretender, and Louis Na- 
poleon the Bonapartist Pretender; all three, of course, 
claiming the throne of France. 

To pacify the mob clamoring around the city hall, La- 
martine — a member of the provisional government, and a 
great orator as well as a poet and writer — suddenly ap- 
peared on a balcony, and asked, " What do you want?" 

" Your head ! " howled a rioter, who evidently did not 
approve of this eminent author. 

*' I only wish you all had it on your shoulders, then you 
would show more sense ! " retorted Lamartine, fearlessly, 
— a truth which struck home, and so amused the crowd 
that they became good-natured and more tractable. When 
they next demanded the ''red flag of the Revolution," in- 
stead of the tricolor, Lamartine ended their hopes then 
and there by declaring, " For my part, I shall never adopt 
it, for the tricolored flag has gone round the world during 
the Republic and Empire with your liberties and glory. 



276 MODERN FRANCE 

while the red flag has merely gone round the Field of 
Mars, dragged in streams of blood from the people ! " 

The mob, having failed to institute anarchy and com- 
munism as they proposed, were glad to accept, with the 
rest of the people, a temporary government which gave all 
citizens over twenty-one the right of voting, and which as- 
sured freedom to everybody, even in the colonies. Elec- 
tions were held almost immediately, for members of a 
National Assembly which was to frame the constitution of 
the new Republic. This Assembly, being continually in- 
terrupted by the arrival of deputations with petitions for 
this, that, and the other thing, had to be protected during 
sittings by the National Guard. 

Meanwhile, to pacify the laboring class, which was in 
great distress because most of the factories were closed, 
" national workshops " had been organized, promising 
employment and fair wages to every one. But as the gov- 
ernment did not have the necessary capital to keep this up 
any length of time, these workshops, after still further 
injuring business, had to be closed. In their rage, the un- 
employed workmen — some of whom had come from other 
parts of the country — began civil war in the streets of the 
capital, and kept up the fight until several thousand lives 
were lost. Even the venerable archbishop fell under the 
rioters' bullets, as he was trying to prevent further blood- 
shed by inducing the mob leaders to submit. 

During these troubles. General Cavaignac (ca-ven-yak') 
was military dictator of the city, and he was then continued 
as chief executive until a new constitution was framed. 
This constitution of 1848 gave the chief power to a Legis- 
lative Assembly, with limited authority to a president, to 



SECOND REPUBLIC (1848-1852) 277 

be elected for one term only of four years. Cavaignac 
received 1,400,000 votes for president; but Louis Napoleon, 
who had returned to France soon after the Republic was 
proclaimed, received 5,400,000 and thus became first presi- 
dent of the Second Republic. His two attempts at Strass- 
burg and Boulogne, and his romantic escape from Ham, 
had made him known everywhere, and the people believed 
him when he confidently asserted, '' My name is a symbol 
of order, nationality, and glory ! " ' 

The new President and Assembly scored a first success 
and won the approval of loyal Catholics by sending French 
troops to Rome, where ItaHans in favor of a republic had 
deprived Pope Pius VI I. of all temporal power (1849). 
Reinstated by the French troops, the Pope asked them to 
remain in Rome, and so it happened that the temporal 
power of the Popes was defended by French soldiers 
until 1870. 

Another popular measure was the improvement of the 
law for primary education, while a highly unpopular change 
was a new restriction imposed upon voters, which withdrew 
the suffrage from nearly half the people. Besides, many 
people had accepted the new government merely as a step 
to tide the country over to the point they wished to reach, 
so there was little hope that it would long continue. 

Meanwhile, the " Prince-President" had his own private 
ambitions, too, and to carry them out caused the secret 
arrest of his main opponents, illegally dissolved the Assem- 
bly, and insured quick compliance with his wishes by call- 
ing out the troops to put down all who resisted ! After 
this coup d'etat ( 1 85 1 ) he secured the adoption, by vote of all 
the people, of a new constitution giving him the presidency 



278 MODERN FRANCE 

of the Republic for a term of ten years, with powers so ex- 
tended that he possessed all the authority of a dictator. 
But this, too, proved only a step to higher position still, 
as Louis Napoleon soon persuaded the people that " the 
Empire is peace," and induced them to make him "Napo- 
leon III., Emperor of the French" (1852). 

The Second Empire was proclaimed in the castle of St. 
Cloud, where the first had begun forty-eight years before. 
As in the Empire of Napoleon I., also, there was to be a 
Legislative Corps and a Senate, but they were completely 
under the domination of the emperor. 



3j^C 



LVIIL THE SECOND EMPIRE 

HAVING been proclaimed emperor. Napoleon III., like 
his model and predecessor, transformed into marshals 
all the generals who had best served his interests, and then 
began to hold court, not only at St. Cloud and the Tuileries, 
but also at Fontainebleau and Compiegne (coN-pyen'y'), 
where he often went to hunt. It was not, however, enough 
to be emperor himself ; beheving that the succession to the 
throne, and the future of France, should be assured, the 
bachelor emperor determined to marry. Because he reahzed 
that his proposals might not be accepted at foreign courts, he 
decided to marry the lady of his choice, instead of a prin- 
cess, and proposed to Eugenie de Montijo (e-zha-nee' de 
mon-tee'ho), a lady of Spanish and French descent, noted 
for her grace and beauty. She immediately won the hearts 
of the French people by generously applying the money 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 279 

voted for wedding gifts, to the foundation of a popular 
charitable institution. 

The imperial wedding in Notre Dame (1853), ^^^ the 
festivities connected with it, greatly delighted the Parisians, 
while the provincials were honored by seeing the imperial 
couple during the many journeys of inspection that the 
emperor loved. These journeys were beneficial because 
they led to many improvements, the emperor himself, for 
instance, setting an example by expending large sums from 
his private purse for drainage and other valuable agricul- 
tural experiments. Not only was Napoleon III. determined 
to make France the. finest and most progressive country in 
the world, but also to make Paris the foremost city. To 
achieve the latter object, broad avenues were planned, 
paved with asphalt, — material which deadened noise and 
could not be used for barricades, — with frequent squares 
as playgrounds for the people. The city was also pro- 
vided with fine markets, various public buildings, and espe- 
cially the finest system of sewers in the world. Besides, 
the park of Vincennes and the Bois de Boulogne (bwa 
de boo-lon^y') were transformed into delightful pleasure 
grounds for a nature-loving people ; and in other parts of 
France, the castle of Pierrefonds (pyar-foN') was restored 
so that every one can now behold a perfect specimen of 
the old feudal fortresses of France, and the city of Car- 
cassonne (car-ca-son') was so artistically rebuilt that it 
now stands exactly as it was in the medieval ages. 

All through Napoleon III.'s reign such improvements 
continued, and while they cost immense sums at first, they 
were productive of great good. They also gave employ- 
ment to hosts of workmen, and afforded a safe and never- 




(28o) 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 281 

ending subject of discussion and conversation for idlers. 
The emperor keenly realized that such talk was far less 
dangerous than political discussions, for hearing once that 
the people were murmuring, he exclaimed : " Regild the 
dome of the Invalides. That will give them something to 
look at!" 

Still, the fact that all was not yet serene in France was 
demonstrated by occasional bread riots in different parts of 
the country, and by attempts to assassinate the emperor. 
But, on the other hand, the French were intensely pleased 
because England had immediately recognized the Second 
Empire ; and the friendly feeling thus created between the 
two nations caused them soon to become allies. 

Although Napoleon III. had declared, " The Empire is 
peace," he did not hesitate to make war when he thought 
it to the advantage of his country. In the first year of 
the Empire (1853), Russia began war against Turkey, 
whereupon France, England, and, later, Sardinia sent forces 
east, to help the Turks defend themselves. You see, 
Russia was already so large and powerful a country, that 
these other European powers were unwilling to let her 
seize Constantinople, as the possession of that city would 
make her mistress of the outlet of the Black Sea, and 
thus permit her, in case of war, to send warships out into 
the Mediterranean to attack them. 

As great stores of supplies for the Russian army had 
been established at Sebas^topol, in the Cri-me'a, the bulk 
of the French and English forces were directed thither 
with orders to capture that city, while an English fleet 
entered the Baltic to attack Russia also on the northwest. 
The allied troops therefore landed in the Crimea, won a 



282 



MODERN FRANCE 



EA OF 




Sebastopo 

Balakla,v 
B L A 



battle on the AFma, and began an eleven months' siege of 
Sebastopol (1854-1855). During that time, the French and 

English troops suffered 
untold hardships, being 
exposed to cholera and 
all the diseases from 
which an army suffers in 
a rigorous climate, where 
the extremes of cold, 
heat, and damipness are 
The Crimea. experienced. 

As things were sorely mismanaged in the hospitals, the 
EngHsh government sent out Miss Florence Nightingale, 
with a competent staff of nurses. This clever, benevolent 
woman soon brought order out of chaos, saved many lives, 
and was so adored by the sick, that they kissed her shadow 
when it fell upon them.^ Her unselfish example has ever 
since been an inspiration to all women, especially to those 
who choose nursing as their profession. 

Early in this siege were fought the famous battles 
of Balakla'va, — where English courage won undying re- 
nown in the "charge of the Light Brigade," — and Inker- 
man', where French reenforcements came up just in time 
to second and save their English allies. Shortly after the 
Sardinian troops had joined the Crimean army, the French, 
by a gallant charge, seized the heights of Malakoff^ com- 
manding Sebastopol ; and thus determined the surrender 
of that city. The Czar who began the war had meantime 
passed away, and his successor concluded a treaty, signed 
in Paris (1856), which left Turkey its old boundaries. 

1 See S/ory of the Etjglish, p. 331. 




(283) 



284 MODERN FRANCE 

In token of the friendliness between France and Eng- 
land, Napoleon and Eugenie visited London and were en- 
tertained by Victoria and Albert, who later on came to 
Paris and were honored by a great exhibition and espe- 
cially by a gorgeous state ball in the Hall of Mirrors at 
Versailles. The same year (1856) was also made memo- 
rable to Bonapartists by the birth of the only child of Na- 
poleon III. and Eugenie, a boy who was called Louis in 
the family circle, but elsewhere was known as " the Prince 
Imperial." This child proved a source of national joy 
and interest, the French closely watching e^ery phase of 
his development ; and as the Prince Imperial was a fine 
lad, and admirably brought up, he naturally excited great 
expectations among stanch Bonapartists. 



3j«4C 



LIX. THE ITALIAN WAR 

AFTER the Crimean War it looked for a while as if the 
government might turn all its attention to the many 
improvements which were taking place in different parts 
of the country. Many railroads were being built, not 
only in France, but also in other countries, and in 1857 
skillful engineers began the piercing of a railroad tunnel 
through Mont Cenis (moN se-nee'), to facilitate travel and 
commerce between France and Italy. 

The next year, however, all Europe was shocked by the 
tidings of an attempt to assassinate the French emperor 
and empress. While they were on their way to the opera 
one evening, an infernal machine exploded so near them 
that their carriage horses and several of their guards were 





m 

00 



< 



3 





(285) 



286 MODERN FRANCE 

instantly killed. To avert a panic, Napoleon and Eugenie 
bravely hastened on, so as to be in their box, in view of 
every one, when the accident became known. As they 
showed the greatest courage and presence of mind, they 
received a tremendous ovation both at the opera and on 
their way home, for by that time all the Parisians were 
out on the boulevards — fine avenues built on the site of 
former bulwarks — reading the bulletins and eagerly dis- 
cussing the startling news. 

At the trial it was discovered that the attempt had been 
made by some Italians, who claimed that Napoleon III. 
deserved death because he was not keeping the oath he 
had made as a young man to help Italy become free. Al- 
though severe laws were now made against such miscreants, 
the emperor knew that attempts on his life would be re- 
peated, as one of the Italians plainly declared. Shortly 
after this the great Italian statesman, Cavour (ca-voor'), the 
prime minister of the King of Sardinia, came to visit the 
emperor, and proved that the time had come to make war 
against Austria, so Napoleon again promised to help the 
Italians. The first sign of this alliance was a marriage 
between the Sardinian king's daughter and Prince Napo- 
leon, son of Jerome Bonaparte, — which gave occasion for 
many popular festivities. Then, early in May, 1859, when 
war began between Sardinia and Austria, France sent her 
troops to join the Sardinian army in northern Italy. Here 
the battles of Montebel'lo and Magen'ta were won by the 
allied forces, General MacMahon (mac-ma-oN^) of the 
French army distinguishing himself so greatly in the last 
encounter, that the emperor named him " Duke of Ma- 
genta" on the battlefield. The French were now able to 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 



287 



enter Milan in triumph, where they were warmly greeted 
as deliverers, for the Austrian rule, imposed by the Con- 
gress of Vienna, had proved most irksome. 

The Austrians having retreated, the allied Franco-Sar- 
dinian army followed them to Solferino (s61-fe-ree'no), where 
another great battle was fought, with Emperor Napoleon, 
King Victor Emman'uel of Sardinia, and Emperor Francis 
Joseph of Austria all present in person. As the allies 




Payiiting hy Yvon. 



Battle of Solferino. 



were again victorious here, Francis Joseph accepted an 
invitation to treat, and met Napoleon to settle the terms 
later embodied in the treaty of Zu'rich. The result of 
the war, then, was that Austria ceded Lombardy, which 
was promptly annexed by the Sardinians, while Venice 
remained under Austrian rule as before. 

The Sardinian king, Victor Emmanuel, now ruled over a 
much enlarged kingdom, yet felt dissatisfied because Na- 
poleon III. had not continued the war, as he had agreed 



288 MODERN FRANCE 

to do, until Venice also had thrown off the Austrian yoke. 
The Sardinians taunted Napoleon with not keeping his 
promise, " Italy shall be free from the Alps to the Adri- 
atic ! " but although many blamed him at the time, it has 
since become known that Prussia was threatening to join 
Austria after the battle of Solferino, and that peace was 
necessary to avoid the great danger of an attack on the 
northern frontier of France while her main forces were 
busy in Italy. 

Next year, however, by an overwhelming vote of the 
people, the various other states of northern Italy, except 
Venice, were added to Sardinia ; and it was then that Na- 
poleon claimed and received his reward for the help that 
had been given by the French army. Sardinia ceded to 
France the provinces of Nice and Savoy, which had been 
taken from the French at the time of the fall of Napoleon 
I. ; and thus the boundaries of France were again extended 
to the Alps. 

The active operations of the Italian War had lasted but 
two months and a half, and as the French army won every 
battle, you may imagine how proud the nation was, and 
what cheers greeted Napoleon III. when he reviewed the 
returning troops at the foot of the famous Vendome 
Column. Even the little three-year-old Prince Imperial 
was present on this festive occasion and was exhibited to 
the admiring soldiers and Parisians in a tiny military cos- 
tume. 

The emperor and empress soon made a state tour through 
Savoy and Nice, going from there to Corsica, to unveil a 
statue of Napoleon I., and then to Algeria, which, in spite 
of sundry risings among scattered tribes, had meanwhile 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 289 

been progressing with marvelous rapidity. During this 
imperial visit the first railway was begun there, but for 
many years transportation and travel continued to be 
carried on chiefly by means of horses, mules, and camels, 
along the ordinary roads which the French were building 
and improving as fast as possible. 

Two imperial wars were not enough for France, so 
troops were sent to Syria to protect the Christians there 
against the Turks, and to China to compel the Chinese to 
respect Christian missionaries, and to open certain ports 
to European commerce. In the latter war French and 
EngHsh again fought bravely side by side. After defeating 
the foe they retaliated for the murder of the missionaries 
by burning down the famous Summer Palace, a museum 
of Chinese treasures of all kinds ; only a few precious 
objects being saved from the flames by looting soldiers. 
After entering Peking^ which had hitherto been closed 
to foreigners, the victorious Franco-English army dictated 
a treaty (Tientsin, 1858) by which sixteen ports were 
opened for trade, an advantage long sought, but until then 
impossible to obtain from the exclusive Chinese. Besides, 
a special territory was set aside for European colonists, 
while Christian missionaries of all denominations were 
henceforth allowed to go anywhere in China. 

In another expedition to Co^chin China, — where mis- 
sionaries had also been molested and trade sorely ham- 
pered, — not only were similar privileges secured, but 
France also obtained her first foothold in what is now one 
of her thriving colonies. But such privileges were acquired 
only after many lives had been sacrificed and much suffer- 
ing had been endured by the French soldiers. 

M. F. — 19 



290 MODERN FRANCE 

LX. THE MEXICAN WAR 

IN i860, new treaties of commerce were made, many po- 
litical prisoners were released, and some reforms were 
made in the army ; for Prussia was growing ever stronger, 
and the politicians who look far ahead were already pre- 
dicting trouble for France in that region. Still, it seemed 
as if the world were rapidly growing better, as so many 
measures were being taken about this time to help the sick 
and poor. There were, for instance, a number of savings 
banks, orphan asylums, old people's homes, day nurseries, 
dispensaries, free hospitals, convalescent homes, trade 
schools, and the like ; and sanitary improvements of all 
kinds were being made, many of these being suggested, 
supported, and superintended, or frequently visited by the 
emperor, the empress, and even by the young Prince Im- 
perial, who at an early age was initiated in all good works. 
In 1 86 1, France became involved in war with Mexico, 
against which England and Spain also sent ships to pro. 
tect their commercial interests, constantly endangered by 
the political disturbances of that turbulent country. The 
ships of the three nations seized two coast cities, but when 
the Mexican government offered to treat, England and 
Spain accepted conditions which France refused. The re- 
sult was that France continued the war alone, and, after 
taking the capital, proposed that Maximilian of Austria, 
brother of Emperor Francis Joseph, should become Em- 
peror of Mexico (1863). Napoleon hoped thus to secure 
control of an American dependency, principally because 
the United States was then weakened by the long Civil 
War. 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 



291 



But the majority of the Mexicans were far too proud 
and independent to submit to the ruler thus forced upon 
them, so they kept up a stubborn resistance. Besides, the 
United States government, as soon as the Civil War was 
ended, reminded Napoleon forcibly that, in accordance with 




Painting by Beauxjd. 

Entry of the French Army into Mexico, 1863. 

the Monroe Doctrine, it would not permit such interference 
by any European power in American affairs.^ Realizing 
that he must either leave Maximilian to manage as best he 
could in Mexico, or else face war with the United States, 
Napoleon promptly recalled the French troops ; and Max- 
imilian, after a brave struggle, betrayed by one of his gen- 
erals, fell into the hands of the Mexican Republicans, who 
shot him (1867). Meantime, Maximilian's young wife 
Carlot'ta — daughter of Leopold and of Louis Philippe's 

1 See Stojy of the Great Republic, p. 257. 



292 



MODERN FRANCE 



daughter — had gone back to France, to implore aid for the 
husband she loved. Her anxiety, and cruel disappointment 
when these prayers remained fruitless, drove her insane, so 
that she never realized the sad fate of her adored husband. 

French troops had been stationed at Rome since 1849 
to protect the Pope, whom Italian patriots were constantly 
threatening to deprive of everything save his spiritual 
power, their aim being to make Rome the capital of United 
Italy. Napoleon was opposed to any further expansion 
of Sardinia ; but Cavour, encouraged by the gains already 
made, continued in his great task of trying to bring about 
complete Italian unity by diplomacy, while such patriots 
as Garibal'di and Mazzini (mat-see'nee) were fighting hard 
to secure it. With a regiment of about one thousand red- 
shirted volunteers. Garibaldi landed in Sicily (i860), and 
within a few months actually seized Sicily and Naples, 
whence he drove the Bourbons, so that King Victor Em- 
manuel of Sardinia could claim the Two Sicilies as well as 
northern Italy. 

A few years later this popular monarch was able to re- 
joige in a further step toward the unification of Italy. 
When war broke out between Prussia and Austria (1866), 
Victor Emmanuel, still cherishing the old-time grudge 
against Austria, promptly seized this occasion to invade 
Venice as the ally of Prussia ; but this time he did not 
prove fortunate in war, and might have paid dearly for 
his attempt, had not his ally won the great victory of Sa- 
dowa (sa'do-va). England, France, and Russia — none 
of whom cared to see Prussia increase too rapidly — now 
proposed to mediate, so a treaty was signed whereby 
Venice was finally joined to Italy. By another agreement, 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 293 

also, the French troops now left Rome, but as the fol- 
lowers of Garibaldi soon tried to wrest the city out of 
the Pope's keeping, the P^ench returned to the rescue. 
In 1867, therefore, the kingdom of Italy included all Italy 
except Rome and its vicinity, where French troops upheld 
the authority of the Pope. 

About this time, France and Prussia came to the verge 
of war in regard to the possession of Lux^emburg, which 
was finally made an independent state ; still, the strain 
caused by this quarrel left lasting marks in both countries. 
As apparently friendly relations continued, the various 
sovereigns of Germany — as well as of the remainder of 
Europe — came in state to Paris to visit the great Inter- 
national Exposition of 1867, to witness the formal opening 
of the Louvre, — now finished, — and to assist at a grand 
review at the Bois de Boulogne, where a sensation was 
caused when a Pole tried to assassinate the Czar. 

Next year the French were called upon to show hospi- 
tality to royalty in a different way, for Queen Isabella, 
driven out of Spain by a revolution, sought refuge in 
France. She was received at the frontier by Eugenie, 
who graciously bade her old sovereign welcome, and saw 
that she was comfortably installed in Paris, where she 
continued to hold her court, although in exile. 

As Napoleon III. was now seriously out of health, he 
was not able to be present at the formal opening of the 
Suez Canal (1869), which had been planned by De 
Lesseps', a cousin of the empress, and was paid for 
chiefly by French financiers. This canal, a triumph of 
engineering skill, cost some sixty millions, and took ten 
years to dig. It greatly shortened the journey to India 



294 MODERN FRANCE 

and the East, and effected important changes in Egypt, 
through which much of the commerce of the world now 
passed. Because it was so great an aid to trade, all the 
European nations were duly represented at the celebra- 
tion in honor of its completion ; but the beautiful Em- 
press of the French was the guest of honor, not only 
during the trip along the canal, but also at the festivities 
at Cairo, where the opera of A'ida (a-ee'da) was given for 
the first time, having been composed on purpose for this 
occasion.^ 

It was partly because his health was affected, also, that 
the emperor decided the time had come to give the French 
people more share in the government (1870). There- 
fore, with the help of a new prime minister (Ollivier), 
he submitted plans for liberal reforms to the voters, who 
pronounced in their favor by a vote of more than 
7,000,000 to 1,500,000. These changes made the im- 
perial government less despotic, and laid more of the 
responsibility on the people themselves. But before 
there was a chance to see how this would work, a new 
crisis arose in the affairs of poor France. 



3>a4< 



LXI. THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 

YOU remember, do you not, how deeply the first Na- 
poleon's wars and cruelty had branded hatred for 
the French into German hearts ? This hatred had been 
kept alive by glowing patriotic songs and other writings. 

1 See Guerber's Stories of Famous Operas, p. 36. 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 295 

Meanwhile, the French, forgetting all their own sins, re- 
membered only that while France had been robbed of 
her natural frontiers by the Congress of Vienna, Prussia 
had constantly been growing larger. In fact, not only 
had Prussia gained by the losses of France, but in two re- 
cent wars she had also wrested territory from Denmark 
and several small German states, besides recently pre- 
venting France from acquiring Luxemburg. Now, the 
newspapers suddenly announced that the crown of Spain 
had been offered to a cousin of the Prussian king, who, 
everybody knew, was by far the strongest and most im- 
portant of the German rulers, and who was working hard 
to bring about German unity by creating a new German 
Empire of which Prussia would naturally be head. With 
such an empire on one side of them, always ready to 
threaten their peace, the French naturally did not want 
a foe on the other side, too, which would be the case 
should a German become ruler of Spain. 

So vehement a protest was therefore made, that the 
prince in question, rather than bring about war by accept- 
ing, quietly declined the proffered honor. The Germans 
now considered the matter settled ; but the French, dread- 
ing lest it might turn up again, asked King William of 
Prussia — son of Queen Louise — to promise he would 
not allow the prince to accept this offer if it were renewed. 
This old monarch, on hearing of this request from the 
French ambassador, politely declined to make the promise, 
and mischief-makers interpreted his courteous refusal as a 
deadly insult to France ! 

The clever Prussian minister Bis'marck, who wished war, 
colored the news of this occurrence to suit his ends; the 



296 MODERN FRANCE 

" yellow journal " element in France demanded war ; and 
in the French ministry, the ambitious Eugenie threw her 
influence on the same side. People differ on the question 
who was most to blame. However that may be, the fact 
remains that upon the strength of a fancied insult, such 
a clamor arose in France that the ministry declared for 
war, and the Chamber, in spite of the opposition of Thiers 
and a few others, who kept repeating, " You are not ready," 
ratified the declaration by voting the necessary supplies 
(July 15, 1870). 

Since " the real author of a war is not the man by 
whom it is declared, but the man by whom it is rendered 
necessary," this war, so often laid to the charge of Napo- 
leon III, can more justly be ascribed to Bismarck, who for 
years past had systematically been preparing for the con- 
flict and scheming to bring it about. He had made his 
plans so carefully that Germany had a perfectly equipped 
and finely drilled army, ready to advance at a moment's 
notice, under the guidance of such able men as Bismarck 
and Von Moltke (fon molt'ke), not to mention sundry Ger- 
man kings and princes. The patriotic spirit, so long fos- 
tered by German literature, was roused to instant action the 
moment war was declared, and all the Germans immedi- 
ately banded together to prevent a new French invasion. 

Meantime, Thiers proved right : the French were not 
ready, although the general-in-chief had boastfully declared, 
*' Not a gaiter-button will have to be purchased ! " Ill- 
equipped, poorly disciplined, and badly generaled, about 
240,000 Frenchmen were hastily dispatched to defend a 
long stretch of frontier, and to oppose three magnificent 
armies composed, altogether, of much greater numbers. 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852- 1870) 



297 



Napoleon III., although desperately ill at the time, has- 
tened to the frontier to join his troops, accompanied by his 
fourteen-year-old son, who was to have his first glimpse of 
actual warfare. They left the empress in charge at Paris 
as regent, and departed amid cheers, although the em- 
peror was already troubled with presentiments of coming 
evil, and not nearly so sanguine as his soldiers, whose 
battle cry was, *' On to Berlin ! " The French emperor 
was, besides, sorely disappointed in his attempts to secure 
alliances. Having helped the English in the Crimea, and 
the Italians in Italy, and having declared war upon the 
greatest enemy of the Austrians, he had naturally hoped 
to receive their support in time of need, but all three na- 
tions now decided to remain neutral. 

The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place 
at Saarbriick'en, early in August, where the Prince Im- 
perial " stood the first 
fire," and part of the 
French army won a doubt- 
ful advantage by defeat- 
ing a smaller number of 
the enemy. Two days 
later another French 
force was defeated 
(Weissenburg), and, the 
French lines beingbroken, 
nothing prevented one 
of the German armies 
from entering France. 
Then came two battles 
(Worth and Spicheren) where the Germans triumphed 




10 20 30 40 50 



Franco-Prussian War. 

Shaded area shows territory ceded at end of war. 




(298) 



SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870) 299 

again, but at a fearful cost of life, although numbering 
more than two to one. In the first of these encounters the 
French cuirassiers made a gallant charge to cover the 
retreat of their comrades ; but these defeats left the way 
clear for the advance of three enormous columns of Ger- 
mans — numbering some 250,000 men — under the able 
leadership of the princes of Prussia and Saxony, and of 
the best German generals. 

On the flank of these forces — which plundered the 
country ruthlessly while passing through — there was a 
large French army under General Bazaine (ba-zen'), who 
deemed it his duty to remain near Metz, while fighting sev- 
eral battles in mid- August, chief among which was the des- 
perate struggle at Gravelotte (grav-lot'). At the end of this 
campaign, in spite of great daring and heroic charges on 
the part of the French, Bazaine found himself, surrounded 
by Germans, in the fortress of Metz, whence he could 
not escape to help his countrymen. After a siege of little 
more than two months, Bazaine surrendered fortress, men, 
and stores, — a deed for which he was tried later on, and 
condemned to death as a traitor. But this sentence was 
speedily changed to twenty years' imprisonment, his family 
being allowed to share his captivity; then, after eight 
months of close detention in the southern prison where 
the Iron Mask had been so long captive,^ Bazaine cleverly 
effected his escape and went to live in Spain, where he 
spent the remainder of his life trying to justify in his writ- 
ings what Frenchmen and Germans alike consider a cow- 
ardly surrender. 

Meantime, another army under General MacMahon, 

1 Story of Old France, p. 336. 



300 MODERN FRANCE 

ordered to go and help Bazaine at Metz, was attacked on 
the way thither, and took position near Sedan', to await 
reenforcements. During the next day, however, the 
French were surrounded by much larger forces of 
Germans, and were forced to fight at a great disadvantage, 
partly because MacMahon was wounded early in the battle. 
Only one cavalry corps managed to cut its way out ; the 
rest of the army was driven into Sedan and was compelled 
to surrender. So did Napoleon III., who, in spite of great 
suffering, had heroically kept on horseback many hours in 
succession. He now wrote to the King of Prussia : '' Not 
having been able to die in the midst of my troops, it only 
remains for me to place my sword in the hands of your 
Majesty. I am your Majesty's good brother. Napoleon." 

But he was not to be allowed to treat directly with his 
opponent ; instead, he was met by Bismarck, who rode be- 
side his carriage until they could alight and hold a quiet 
conversation in front of a poor cottage by the wayside. 
When all had been arranged. Napoleon met William of 
Prussia in a neighboring castle, where he was courteously 
received, and learned that he was to have the Castle of Wil- 
helmshohe (vil'helms-he-e) as his residence while a prisoner 
of war. But, although the emperor was captured, the 
Prince Imperial escaped, thanks to the presence of mind 
of his tutor, who, seeing that all was lost, hurried the lad 
into a train just leaving, and whisked him safely out of 
France into Belgium. From there, a few days later, they 
proceeded to England, where the young heir was to rejoin 
Eugenie and grow up under her care. 

Meanwhile, the general who replaced the wounded Mac- 
Mahon met Bismarck and Von Moltke and signed the 




(3oi) 



302 MODERN FRANCE 

Capitulation of Sedan. The victorious Germans secured 
thereby 80,000 prisoners of war, whose loss left the road to 
Paris undefended. 



-o-oJO^oo- 



LXII. THE END OF THE SECOND EMPIRE 

EACH report of a new defeat of the French army 
naturally caused great excitement in all parts of 
France, but especially in Paris, the chief center both of 
population and of discontent. When it became evident 
that the country had been launched, unprepared, into a war 
which could only result fatally, public indignation against 
the government became extreme. Without pausing to 
weigh consequences, the people, ascribing all the evil 
which befell them to Napoleon HI., railed against him 
without measure. Then riots took place, culminating 
three days after Sedan in a violent invasion of the Chamber, 
where the "Downfall of the Empire" was proclaimed, and 
a Commission of National Defense hastily organized. Still, 
even in the midst of the general confusion, some voices 
were raised in favor of law and order, Jules Favre (zhiil 
fa'vr'), for instance, managing to give the populace the 
necessary caution : " No scenes of violence !" Let us re- 
serve our arms for our enemies ! " 

By surrendering to the Germans at Sedan, Napoleon HI. 
escaped the vituperation which broke out on all sides, not 
only against his government, but also because he had sur- 
rendered. The common verdict was, " An emperor gets 
killed, but does not give up ! " and such was the state of 
popular irritation, that no one now dared speak openly in 
favor of the fallen ruler. 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 303 

The Prince Imperial having been safely carried out of 
the country by his tutor, the poor empress-regent remained 
alone in the Tuileries, to bear the whole weight of the 
people's displeasure. At first, many of the officials had 
sworn by all that was sacred to stand by her, but the loss 
of 117 out of 120 regiments, — either shut up in Metz or 
surrendered at Sedan, — and the fact that no troops were 
left to oppose the Prussians advancing toward the capi- 
tal, filled all hearts with despair. The empress not being 
a Frenchwoman by birth, the people wrongly assumed 
that she could not feel for them, and unjustly accused her, 
besides, of having spent in personal extravagance the money 
which should have been used for the country's defense. 
The result of all this was, that even while Eugenie was 
bending every thought and energy to save the situation, 
a wild mob broke into the Tuileries, from which she had 
to escape through the picture galleries of the Louvre ! 

Cast adrift in Paris with her companion, with only three 
francs in her pocket, the empress, after vainly trying to 
find some of her friends at home, had to cast herself upon 
the charity of her American dentist, who cleverly got her 
out of the city and country where her life was now in im- 
minent danger. On arriving in England, Eugenie was 
joined by her son, and hospitably welcomed by Queen 
Victoria, who, having been her friend in prosperity, gener- 
ously did all she could for her in time of need. The ex- 
empress, therefore, took up her abode at Chislehurst, where 
Napoleon III. came to join her when his captivity was 
over some six months later. 

Meantime, the Government of National Defense, dating 
from the 4th of September, 1870, had intrusted the gov- 



304 



MODERN FRANCE 



ernment of Paris to General Trochu (tro-shii') and had 
given the venerable Thiers instructions to visit London, 

Florence, St. Peters- 
burg, and Vienna, in 
hopes of inducing 
some or all of the 
governments located 
in those cities to in- 
tercede with Prussia 
in behalf of France. 
But in spite of all 
Thiers' s patriotic elo- 
quence, no help was 
vouchsafed. The 
Prussians, mean- 
while, continually ad- 
vancing, surrounded 
Paris on the 19th of 
September, thus be- 
ginning a memorable 
siege which was to 
last nearly four and 
a half months, and 
to cause untold suf- 
fering to about two million people. But before this siege 
began, the Parisians had heard how bravely Strassburg 
was resisting a whole month's bombardment, and although 
they felt that their capital would probably have to yield in 
the end, they were fully determined to rival their sister city 
in courage. 




Strassburg Cathedral. 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 305 

LXIII. THE SIEGE OF PARIS 

ONE of the first duties of the Government of National 
Defense had been to arm or set to work every man 
in Paris, and to prepare for a siege by storing up the 
greatest possible quantity of fuel and provisions. Thus 
the new forts and ramparts built by Louis Philippe were 
stocked and manned as promptly as possible, and the 
suburbs cleared, the houses and trees in outlying parks 
being torn down to serve for fuel, as well as to prevent 
their masking the approach of the foe. 

After the investment of the capital, no news could reach 
or leave beleaguered Paris save by means of carrier 
pigeons or balloons. Thanks to photography, however, 
even a carrier pigeon could bring, in microscopic form, a 
whole budget, and it was by such methods that the im- 
prisoned Parisians learned of the successive capitulations 
of the fortresses of Toul (tool), Strassburg, and Metz, and 
of the continued brave resistance of Belfort (bel-for'). 
The fact that Bazaine had surrendered Metz with its 
immense stores and a force of 170,000 men, proved a 
staggering blow for the poor Parisians, who had hitherto 
hoped that that army might yet break through the Prussian 
lines and come southward to deliver them ! Then, too, 
while sufficient numbers of Germans were camping all 
around Paris to maintain the strictest blockade, large 
hostile forces were overrunning other parts of the country, 
although heroic attempts were made to check them at 
Orleans and elsewhere. The war in the provinces was 
energetically directed by Gambet^ta, a prominent member 
of the national government, who escaped from Paris in a 



3o6 MODERN FRANCE 

balloon after the siege began and joined his colleagues at 
Tours (toor), which had been made the temporary capital 
because Paris was cut off from communication with the 
rest of the country. 

Time and again the Parisians planned sorties from one 
point or another, always hoping to break through the 
German lines and thus get news, provisions, and aid for 
their beleaguered fellow-citizens ; but all these sorties, 
made by untrained and often badly led forces, resulted only 
in intense suffering and great loss of life. Heroic attempts 
to relieve the capital were also made by new armies raised 
in different parts of France ; but although these forces 
did win several insignificant victories, none of them suc- 
ceeded in reaching the capital. In the end, the French 
Army of the Loire was compelled to retreat toward the 
west and surrender ; the Army of the North was driven 
toward Belgium ; and the Army of the East, on its way to 
relieve Belfort, was driven into Switzerland, where, that be- 
ing a neutral country, the men had to lay down their arms. 

At first, the Parisians bore the siege with all the good- 
natured philosophy which characterizes the French nation. 
Even the rich gayly put up with all manner of privations 
and restrictions, and all seemed animated only by the de- 
sire to display the purest patriotism. So, while the men 
of all ages and ranks of society were employed in the 
trenches, ambulances, machine shops, and manufactories 
of ammunition, the women were equally busy in all branches 
of hospital and relief work, one and all doing their duty 
with a courage which cannot be sufficiently praised. There 
were, indeed, more than enough sick for these volunteer 
nurses to attend, for the winter was unusually early and 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 307 

cold, and the unwonted privations and constant exposure 
in the trenches and forts caused an alarming increase in 
disease. The sick, therefore, together with those wounded 
in the constant fighting, kept the beds of the improvised 
hospitals constantly full. 

Almost from the first, fuel and provisions had to be placed 
in charge of certain officials, who portioned out rations ac- 
cording to the number of persons in each family. If you 
have ever noticed the thousands of market wagons, the 
long trains of cars, and the many ships or boats which 
daily bring provisions into a large city, you can imagine 
how it must be when such a center is deprived for more 
than four months of all such supplies ! Then, too, as fuel 
was scarce, no gas could be made, the streets had to re- 
main unlighted, and even kitchen fires were used only 
when absolutely necessary, and then in the most economical 
fashion. Lack of fresh milk — the first supply to fall 
short — caused the death of babies by the score, so that 
more infants died during that siege than men. 

Soon, ordinary meat could not be had even at fancy 
prices, and although all the animals at the "Zoo," all the 
cab and other horses, and finally all the dogs, cats, and 
rats were devoured, the Parisians daily suffered more and 
more from the pangs of constant, gnawing hunger. Even 
the provisions of flour and other cereals became so low 
that, toward the end, bread was made from a queer mixture 
of bran, chopped straw, and the sweepings of flour mills, 
such as would not, in ordinary times, be considered proper 
food for common cattle. 

The worst came, however, when the Germans, exasper- 
ated by the Parisians' resistance, and hoping to compel them 



3o8 MODERN FRANCE 

to surrender sooner, began to bombard the city two days 
after Christmas. With their great Krupp guns, the Prus- 
sians could throw huge bombshells over the forts and 
ramparts, into the very heart of the capital, where each 
exploding missile scattered death and destruction over a 
large area. At first the awful whizz of those bombs filled 
all hearts with dismay, but even timid citizens grew ac- 
customed to them before long, so that they went about 
their business as calmly as if nothing were happening. 

This bombardment lasted a whole month, for it was 
only when the last outside forces had been disarmed or 
driven far away, when the government had been obliged 
to flee from Tours to Bordeaux, and when the last 
sortie of one hundred thousand men had, again failed 
to break through the German lines, that Paris, having 
scanty provisions for only a few days longer, at last 
capitulated (Jan. 28, 1871). As there was no possible 
hope of succor, this was really the only thing to do. 
The terms were arranged by Favre, who was sent out to 
Versailles under a flag of truce, to discuss matters with 
Bismarck, then cozily established in the royal palace built 
by Louis XIV. This was now, however, entirely occu- 
pied by the Germans, who^ a few days before this, in the 
great Hall of Mirrors, had proclaimed King William of 
Prussia as Emperor of all Germany, the unification of that 
country having been hastened by this very war. It was thus 
in the palace of Versailles that Favre — who had declared 
at the beginning of the siege that " France would yield 
neither an inch of territory nor a stone of its fortresses " — 
was obliged to pocket his pride, and humbly inquire what 
terms the Germans would be willing to grant. 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 309 

After some hesitation, it was agreed that the seventeen 
forts around Paris should at once be handed over to the 
Germans, that most of the French troops in Paris, ex- 
cept the National Guard, should be disarmed, and that the 
city should pay a war contribution of ^40,000,000 ; and, on 
the other hand, a three weeks' truce was declared, in ef- 
fect throughout all France, to give opportunity for the elec- 
tion of a National Assembly, which should decide whether 
to resume the war or to make a treaty of peace. Bismarck, 
however, refused to tell what terms he would demand in 
the final treaty. 

It was with a heart filled with dark forebodings that 
Favre returned to the capital, to confess what he had 
done. To his surprise, however, the news of the armistice 
was received at first with joy by most of the Parisians, to 
whom it meant only that the siege and famine were over, 
that provisions and tidings could enter the city once more, 
and that many of them could join their families and friends 
who had gone elsewhere before the blockade began. 



3>»i< 



LXIV. THE COMMUNE 

GAMBETTA protested against an armistice made 
without consulting him, but he did not reject it. He 
urged the people to spend the three weeks' time in raising 
new forces to continue the war. The elections were held 
early in February, and the members elected betook them- 
selves immediately to Bordeaux, where the people received 
Thiers — one of the successful candidates — with the im- 



3IO MODERN FRANCE 

ploring cry, " Thiers, get us out of this ! " Nearly all the 
members were in favor of peace. 

In this Assembly it was settled, by what is known as the 
" Bordeaux Compact," that first of all order must be re- 
stored in France, and the country freed from the German 
invader. Whether France should be in future a republic, 
a kingdom, or an empire, was not to be decided until later. 
Thiers, the ablest man present, begged the other deputies 
to subscribe to this compact, and was unanimously chosen 
to act meanwhile as the head of the government. 

After appointing a minister, Thiers himself, with Favre, 
hastened to Versailles to secure the best terms possible from 
the victorious enemy. Bismarck, who carried on all the ne- 
gotiations for the Germans, proved a very hard antagonist. 
He insisted, in the peace of Versailles, that France cede all 
Alsace (al-sas^) and part of Lorraine to Germany, that an 
indemnity of $1,000,000,000 be given within three years' 
time, and that, until it was all paid, German troops should 
be quartered in France as security. It was also agreed 
that German troops might enter Paris in triumph, and 
occupy part of the city until the National Assembly should 
ratify the treaty. Thiers almost fainted when he heard 
the harsh terms demanded by Bismarck, but the only 
change he and Favre could secure was a slight reduction 
*of the indemnity, — Bismarck's original demand was for 
;^ 1,200,000,000. The National Assembly was to ratify 
this peace ; and as the German troops were to stay in 
Paris till it did so, the Assembly ratified the treaty so 
promptly that the troops remained less than two days. 

The "entry" of the invading troops was solemn and 
impressive indeed, for they came slowly marching along 




(3ii) 



312 



MODERN FRANCE 



the Avenue of the Grande Armee, their bands bursting 
forth in triumphant airs under the Arch of Triumph of the 
Star. But Paris itself presented no festive appearance, the 
fine sculptures of the arch being still protected by boards, 
as during the bombardment, every window tightly closed, 
all the curtains drawn, and not one Frenchman either in 
the streets or up at the windows ! ^ Down the deserted 
Champs Elysees the conquerors marched, before stopping 
and camping on the Place de la Concorde, for it had been 
agreed that they should advance no farther. The " line 
of demarcation" was guarded by double lines of German 
and French sentinels, to prevent any trouble. You can 
imagine the rejoicing in Paris when these Germans marched 
out again, the second day after entering, and the relief of 
Thiers and his government when this ordeal was safely over ! 

The Assembly was now transferred to Versailles, for 
Paris was still the center of the country and of the govern- 
ment. Meantime, the people there, relieved from famine 
by the raising of the siege, did not at first realize at what 
price peace had been obtained ; but, having no work to do, 
— not even the guard duty which had occupied them so 
wholesomely during the siege, — they now had plenty of 
leisure to discuss matters. As usual, there were some 
men, who, meaning well but having little or no judgment, 
so wrought upon the mob by their eloquence, that popular 
excitement soon got beyond control. Then the entrance of 
the Germans proved " the last straw." Riots broke out with 
which the National Guard seemed to sympathize, instead of 
trying to suppress them. 

Seeing the populace in such a state of ferment, the 

1 Read Daudet's Le Siege de Berlin, 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 313 

national government deemed it best to remove the cannon 
held by the National Guard, or militia of Paris. Infuriated 
by this attempt, the Parisians swarmed out against the 
regular troops, summarily shot two generals, and seized the 
cannon themselves! Whereupon, too weak to contend 
with the rioters, the government forces hastily withdrew 
to Versailles. 

■ Thus left to manage as they pleased, these rebels took 
forcible possession of the city hall, and speedily organized 
a new government of the city of Paris, while the red revo- 
lutionary banner of " the Commune " was flaunted on all 
sides. The Commune of Paris not only denied the au- 
thority of Thiers and the National Assembly, but declared 
against the treaty of Versailles. Being utterly lawless 
themselves, the Communists could not, of course, maintain 
order; all wanted to lead, and all talked at once; one 
leader after another, therefore, was deposed as incompe- 
tent, while drunkenness and anarchy prevailed on all sides. 
During the Commune, at the suggestion of a rabid 
architect, the mob undermined and tore down the famous 
Vendome Column, which soon lay prone on the pavement ! 
Still, you will be interested to know that the architect was 
later punished for this act of vandalism, for when order 
was restored, he was condemned to pay all the costs of the 
reerection of this historic monument. 

. The ignorant class, deluded into believing that all 
would soon be well, blindly obeyed the Commune, with- 
out perceiving that it was leading them straight to destruc- 
tion. In their mad rage against Thiers for signing the 
Versailles treaty, they utterly destroyed his valuable his- 
torical library. 



314 MODERN FRANCE 

The Commune not only disowned the government at 
Versailles, but would brook none of its interference ; clos- 
ing the city gates against it, and thus giving the signal for 
a new siege, for no decent national government could sub- 
mit to the dictation of an insurgent city. Troops were 
therefore hastily collected to put down this insurrection, 
but only thirty thousand men were available, until the Ger- 
mans, realizing the serious state of affairs, hastened the re- 
turn of their war prisoners of Sedan and Metz. This army 
of about one hundred and fifty thousand, sent by the national 
government to subdue Paris, was scornfully termed by the 
Communists **the men of Versailles." When the Com- 
munists heard that this army was advancing to reduce them 
to order, they promptly seized as hostages some two hun- 
dred prominent citizens who favored the national govern- 
ment — among others the archbishop (Darboy). 

The rule of the insurgent government of Paris, or " the 
Commune," lasted seventy-one days, and the second siege 
of the capital, which now began, continued during the last 
seven or eight weeks of that time. During this siege there 
was in Paris none of the law and order which marked the 
siege by the Germans. In fact, all good and peaceful citi- 
zens were terrorized by the violence of the mad rabble in 
command, who were just talking of a new Reign of Terror, 
and were proposing to set up a guillotine, when the govern- 
ment troops, after seizing several of the forts, succeeded at 
last in forcing their way into the city. 

Seven days of grim fighting in Paris streets ensued, for 
the Communists had erected barricades everywhere, and 
madly defended themselves inch by inch. In their rage, 
they slew their hostages, including the venerable arch- 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 315 

bishop, and set fire to the Tuileries, the Louvre, arxd the 
city hall, besides many other important public and pri- 
vate buildings. The government troops, by rushing on- 
ward, succeeded in saving the Louvre with its art treasures, 
but the famous Tuileries are now nothing but a glorious 
memory! 

Thus, although the Germans are to blame for ruining and 
sacking some places in the northeastern part of France, the 
Communists are mainly responsible for the awful destruc- 
tion in Paris, where their name will always be held in abhor- 
rence. To make sure that buildings once set afire would 
burn to the very ground, women of the lowest class were 
sent around to saturate them with kerosene, being on that 
account called keroseners {petroleiises). Many of these 
poor wretches were caught or shot down, in the very act of 
madly trying to spread the fire. 

Rushing ever onward, the government forces brought 
the Communists to bay in a cemetery (Le Pere La Chaise), 
where no quarter was either given or taken, and where 
corpses lay strewn so thick, that '* the air of the whole 
district was fraught with pestilence ! " Besides the in- 
numerable killed and wounded, the army of Versailles 
secured some ten thousand prisoners, a few of whom 
were executed on the spot, and others after trial by court- 
martial, while many were either exiled or deported for a 
number of years. 

The Tuileries, destroyed by the Communists, and the 
palace of St. Cloud, set afire by French bombs to dislodge 
the Prussians during the first siege, have never been 
rebuilt; but the city hall has since been reerected as 
nearly as possible as it was before. 



3i6 MODERN FRANCE 



LXV. FOUR PRESIDENTS 

THE new government having shown ability to cope 
with the situation by putting down the lawless Com- 
mune, — although at a fearful cost of life and property, — 
confidence was soon restored at home and abroad. In- 
deed, the story of the invasion of France, of the siege of 
Paris, and of the horrors of the Commune, had touched so 
many hearts, that contributions now came pouring in from 
all sides, thus helping the poorer Parisians to live, and the 
peasants to rebuild their ruined huts, restock their deserted 
farms, and purchase seed and tools to enable them to earn 
their living once more in their old homes. Meantime, the 
government in general, and Thiers in particular, were strain- 
ing every nerve, not only to restore security and thereby 
prosperity to France, but also to collect and pay the enor- 
mous war indemnity, without which the Germans refused 
to evacuate certain parts of the country. 

Such was the patriotism of the people, however, that 
whenever a loan was called for, much more than the sum 
desired was immediately subscribed, and whereas Thiers 
had imagined that it would be impossible to comply 
with Germany's demands on time, and some people fan- 
cied it could never be done, the thousand million dollars 
were paid to the last penny on the 5th of September, 
1873, and the last German s.oldier was seen to cross the 
French frontier a few days later ! Most of the German sol- 
diers had, of course, returned to their homes immediately 
after the war, and it is reported that Emperor William I., 
on his return, paid a visit to his mother's tomb, bending 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 317 

over to kiss her beautiful marble effigy and murmuring 
brokenly, *' Mother, thou art avenged ! " 

When the arrangements for the last payment had been 
duly made, early in the spring of 1873, Thiers received an 
r official vote of thanks from the Assembly, which enthusi- 
astically declared that he "deserved well of the country," 
while the French everywhere hailed him rapturously as 
" Liberator of the Territory ! " 

Meantime, it was not only money that France had lost ; 
the Germans had taken possession of Alsace and Lorraine, 
where German rule and the German language officially 
replaced the French, and was exclusively used in the 
schools.^ The inhabitants, however, were free to choose 
whether they would remain French citizens and leave their 
homes, or, renouncing France, remain where they were and 
become German citizens. This choice was, as you can im- 
agine, a very cruel one, but many patriots lost everything 
rather than give up the right to call themselves Frenchmen, 
and the whole nation still mourns the loss of these two 
provinces, which have often been compared to two innocent 
Httle maidens borne off into captivity by a Cruel foe ! The 
statues of Alsace and Lorraine, or of their chief cities, are 
still veiled in crape on all festive occasions, thus showing 
that the wound bleeds on in spite of the years which have 
elapsed since the disastrous Franco-Prussian War. 

The declaration of Thiers at Bordeaux, that when order 
was once restored the people would be at liberty to choose 
the government they preferred, had encouraged all politi- 
cal parties to help him, while biding their time, each fac- 
tion of course deeming that it would be the one, to reap 

1 Read Daudet's La Derniere Classe. 



3i8 MODERN FRANCE 

the benefit of such forbearance. Very soon after the 
Commune, therefore, there was much agitation by the 
Legitimists, who wanted a monarchy with the Count of 
Chambord as king ; by the Orleanists, who wanted the 
Count of Paris to head a constitutional monarchy ; and 
by the Bonapartists, who wanted to restore the Empire. 
Each party tried to induce Thiers to favor its views, 
rather than uphold the Third French RepubUc, in which 
they knew he was, originally, no ardent believer, although 
he was now elected president. 

Thiers, however, was shrewd enough to point out that 
while there might be one throne in France, he could see 
three claimants for it, of whom no two would ever be will- 
ing to allow the third to occupy it in peace ! At first this 
argument seemed unanswerable, but the Legitimists, know- 
ing that the Count of Chambord was already past middle 
age and childless, and that the Count of Paris was his heir 
and next of kin, hoped to induce the latter to forego all 
claim to the throne until the former's death. Then, after 
a vain attempt to effect a reconciliation between parties 
which had been estranged since 1830, some of the monarch- 
ists, fancying Thiers was the main obstacle to their. success, 
succeeded in forcing him to hand in his resignation (1873). 

On the following day, France unexpectedly found her- 
self with a new executive, for, Thiers having resigned. 
Marshal MacMahon was immediately elected by the As- 
sembly to be president in his stead. 

MacMahon went to reside in the Elysee Palace, in 
Paris, thus transferring the government to the capital once 
more. A year later. he formally opened the Grand Opera 
House, the largest and most beautiful theater in the world. 




Painting by Detnille. 



Opera Staircase on a Gala Night. 



(319) 



320 



MODERN FRANCE 



To grace this occasion, the Lord Mayor of London and 
many other noted persons appeared officially, and were 
ushered up the grand staircase between lines of glittering 
cuirassiers. 

^ The monarchists, knowing that MacMahon belonged by 
birth to their party, and the Bonapartists, knowing that he 
had earned his title (Duke of Magenta) while in the service 
of the Empire, both hoped for his support. A new attempt 
was therefore made — this time successfully — to end the 
feud between the Legitimists and Orleanists, so it looked for 
a while as if monarchy might after all be restored. In fact, 
the Count of Chambord graciously made many concessions; 
but when asked to allow France to retain the tricolor, to 
which the people were so attached, he firmly declared that 
he would never give up "the flag of Henry IV. and of 
Joan of Arc" for the *'flag that France had chosen for her- 
self." This obstinacy about *'a napkin," as the royal 
banner was contemptuously styled by one great authority, 
proved to his long-suffering party that there would be no 
chance to restore royalty in France as long as he lived. 
As from their point of view a Republic was preferable to 
the Empire, the Royalists now loyally supported the gov- 
ernment of MacMahon, even helping to pass the law (sep- 
tennate) providing that the term of office of the French 
president should be seven years. 

By a series of laws passed in 1875, during the admin- 
istration of MacMahon, — second president of the Third 
French Republic, — the Assembly framed a new constitu- 
tion which, with slight change, is still in force in France. 
The lawmaking power was given to a National Assembly 
consisting of two houses — a Senate elected mostly by the 



S-'HI 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 321 

eighty-six departments, and a Chamber of Deputies elected 
by all the people. The National Assembly elects the presi- 
dent of the Republic (at Versailles), who appoints the min- 
isters. The first elections gave a Republican majority in 
both Senate and Chamber. 

The fact that France had recovered with marvelous 
speed from the disastrous effects of the Franco-Prus- 
sian War, and that notwithstanding it had cost her some 
;^3,ooo,ooo,ooo she was not ruined, was demonstrated by a 
beautiful World's Fair, held in Paris in 1878, of which there 
still remains the magnificent building of the Trocadero. 
he next year, although his term of office was not ended, 

acMahon resigned (1879), whereupon the Senate and 
Chamber of Deputies elected Grevy (gra-vee'), a Republi- 
can, third president of the Third Republic. It was in the 
beginning of Grevy's presidency that the Prince Imperial 
died in Zululand, to the lasting grief of the Bonapartists, 
whose hopes now had to be transferred to Prince Napoleon, 
son of Jerome, who was not at all popular, and who was 
best known by the derisive nickname Plon-Plon (pl6N- 
p16n'). 

Taking advantage of some trouble with Tunis, France 
proceeded to invade that province (1881), — over which 
she still holds a protectorate. From time to time, also, she 
gradually extended her authority in Madagascar, Tonkin', 
and Anam', although the wars in those regions, carried 
on in trying climates, cost innumerable lives and large 
sums of money. 

Grevy, whose most noted saying is the oft-quoted, " I 
am here, I stay here!" {^J'y s?ns, fy reste !), not only 
served out the full seven years of his first term, but was 



322 



MODERN FRANCE 



elected to serve a second term, just at a time when mon- 
archists were holding up their heads with more pride be- 
cause a daughter of the Count of Paris had married the 
heir of Portugal. Foreseeing trouble from their exalted 
state of mind, the minister of war (General Boulanger) 
secured a decree exiling all pretenders to the crown from 

France. But soon after, 
having become very pop- 
ular, thanks to sundry army 
reforms, he was accused of 
aiming at military dictator- 
ship, and for that reason 
was deprived of his com- 
mand and placed on the 
retired list. This unwise 
measure only made a martyr 
and idol of this popular 
hero, whose praises were 
loudly sung everywhere. 
For no sufficient reason, 
many people expected great 
things of him, and at one 
time seemed ready to fol- 
low wherever he led; but, 
prosecuted by the govern- 
ment, he was soon obliged to flee from the country, and 
he ended his adventures by committing suicide. 

Grevy, whose career had been most praiseworthy, was 
forced to resign (1887) because he rashly tried to shield his 
son-in-law who had been trafficking in decorations. The 
Senate and Chamber of Deputies thereupon elected in his 




The Eiffel Tower. 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 323 

stead Sadi Carnot (sa-dee' car-no'), a grandson of the Carnot 
of Revolutionary fame (see page 93). During his presi- 
dency, the one hundredth anniversary of the last meeting 
of the States-General was celebrated at Versailles (1889), 
and he opened an exposition (1889) which surpassed all 
its predecessors in beauty and extent, thus revealing to 
the world at large how fast France was progressing in 
every line. The Eiffel (ef 'el) Tower is all that now re- 
mains of the glories of this World's Fair, in the course 
of which the one hundredth anniversary of the fall of the 
Bastille was celebrated with great popular rejoicings. 

LXVI. THE PANAMA SCANDAL 

FRANCE, as we have learned, had a large share 
in the construction of the Suez Canal, not only 
because its engineer was De Lesseps, a Frenchman, but 
also because French capitalists supplied a large part of 
the necessary funds to carry out the work. From the 
outset, the Suez Canal had proved of great benefit to the 
world in general, and to England in particular, whose road 
to India it shortened by half. The Egyptian ruler, believ- 
ing that this canal, by bringing so much traffic through his 
country, was going to make it rich, became extravagant, 
planning and beginning many other improvements, for 
which he recklessly borrowed money at ruinously high rates 
of interest. The result of all this was that Egypt ran 
yearly deeper into debt, until it finally came to the verge of 
bankruptcy, in spite of the fact that it sold its shares in 
the Suez Canal Company to England for a very large sum. 



324 



MODERN FRANCE 



As Frenchmen and Englishmen had loaned money to 
Egypt, the French and English governments decided to 
prevent their people from losing the money they had thus 
invested. Each government therefore sent a representative 
to Egypt, to regulate the finances of the country, and the 
Egyptian ruler, unable to extricate himself otherwise from 
his difficulties, reluctantly accepted their help. Later, from 
1879 to 1882, a board of English, French, and Egyptian 
ministers practically governed all Egypt. But, although 
conditions were gradually improving, the Egyptians suffered 
so sorely from their past mistakes that they rebelled in 
1882, taking matters into their own hands once more and 
driving both French and English out of their country ! 
Although it had been settled that an Anglo-French force 
should put down any rebellion, the English, compelled to 
do all the fighting, denied the French any further right to 
interfere with the government of Egypt. Since 1882, 
England has therefore exercised a sole protectorate over 
Egypt, and has been the real mistress of the Suez Canal. 

Meantime, having made money in one canal speculation, 
the French were continually urging De Lesseps to under- 
take another, this time across the narrow central part of 
America. De Lesseps having chosen the Isthmus of 
Panama as the most suitable point, a canal was begun in 
1 88 1 between Colon' and Panama, which are some forty 
five miles apart. But, owing to the deadly cHmate, this 
proved a far more costly undertaking than the Suez Canal, 
and as De Lesseps was too old and too feeble to carry on the 
work in person, it fell into the hands of swindlers. They 
induced many people to invest, but squandered the canal 
company's money, so that eight years later the work had 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 325 

to be stopped for lack of funds before it was half done. As 
the canal company's stock was almost worthless, the French 
government made an inquiry to protect the investors (1892). 
At first De Lesseps was accused of fraud, and con- 
demned to a fine and imprisonment ; but it was soon 
proved that his mind was too far gone with old age for 
him to have had any responsibility in the swindle, for 
which some of the real culprits were duly imprisoned and 
fined. But the fact that many newspapers, a few deputies, 
and even senators accepted bribes to misrepresent things, 
made the " Panama Scandal" one of the sensational events 
of the brief presidency of Sadi Carnot (i 892-1 894). This 
fourth president, proved a man of thorough integrity, and 
enjoyed great popularity until his career was suddenly cut 
short at Lyons by the dagger of an Italian anarchist 
(1894). As martyr-president he rests in the Pantheon. 

LXVII. THE DREYFUS AFFAIR 

CARNOT was succeeded by Casimir-Perier, during 
whose brief rule began the thrilling and mys- 
terious Dreyfus (dra-fiis') Affair, which has been so 
much talked about, that it will doubtless interest you 
to hear a little about it. Alfred Dreyfus, an Alsatian 
Jew, officer in the French army, was one day sud- 
denly and brutally arrested, without knowing what for. 
Brought before a court-martial, he was accused of treach- 
erously selling information to the Germans, in proof 
whereof a paper was produced, which three experts out of 
five pronounced to be in his handwriting. This paper — 



326 MODERN FRANCE 

not signed — had been found by a spy in the scrap basket 
of the German embassy, and was evidently the docketed 
outside cover of some document giving information in re- 
gard to secret military matters. 

There has always been a strong prejudice in France 
against Jews. Besides, the French believe that the 
Germans were so successful in the Franco-Prussian War 
mainly because they were so well informed in regard to 
every inch of France, and as to its resources of all kinds. 
This knowledge, they claim, was furnished by traitors and 
spies, whom they have ever since been anxious to seize 
and punish. Almost instantly, therefore, it was generally 
believed that Dreyfus must be one of these base traitors, — 
although he protested his innocence, — a suspicion which 
seemed to be confirmed when, after a secret trial, he was 
condemned to be publicly degraded, and deported for life 
to Devil's Island, on the coast of French Guiana (1895). 

Brought to the square before the military school, in the 
presence of five thousand soldiers, besides many newspaper 
reporters and other spectators, Dreyfus was solemnly told by 
the general in charge : " Dreyfus, you are unworthy to carry 
arms. In the name of the people of France, we degrade 
you ! " Then the unfortunate man's sword was taken and 
broken, and buttons, shoulder straps, and stripes were 
roughly torn off the uniform he wore. Still, in spite of 
all this humiliation, the victim only cried : " Long live 
France ! You have degraded an innocent man ! " 

Under strong escort, Dreyfus was borne off to the coast, 
and from thence to solitary confinement on an island, where 
he suffered not only from the unhealthf ul climate, but from 
harsh treatment ; for his keepers believed him guilty of the 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 327 

basest of crimes. During Dreyfus's four years of martyr- 
dom on Devil's Island, — he was once chained to his pallet 
for two months, — no news of his family, friends, or the 
outer world reached him. The government, however, in- 
sisted upon receiving a daily cablegram to make sure he 
was securely guarded, this little precaution helping to make 
his custody cost the nation some ;^ 10,000 a year. 

Meanwhile, although Dreyfus did not know it at the 
time, the finding of more papers, in the same writing, in 
the scrap basket of the German embassy, caused General 
Picquart (pe-car') to suspect that all was not right. But 
when Picquart called the attention of his superiors to it, 
they treated him at first with contempt. After a while, 
however, the Dreyfus case came to the front once more, 
the writing this time being said to correspond exactly with 
that of another officer (Esterhazy ). Three men — Dreyfus's 
brother, the novelist Zo'la, and a member of the Senate — 
now made great efforts to clear the matter up, but all they 
could obtain was a formal assertion from the War Office 
that positive proofs of Dreyfus's guilt existed. Still, when 
these so-called proofs were finally produced, the only im- 
portant paper was discovered to be a mere forgery ! 

As the German and Italian governments testified that 
they had never had any dealings with Dreyfus, public 
opinion now clamored for a new trial, Zola being partic- 
ularly active, and publishing a sensational pamphlet, 
in which he boldly accused court, war office, and govern- 
ment of rank injustice. On account of this pamphlet, 
Zola was tried for libel, and condemned to a fine and to 
a year's imprisonment. The latter penalty he evaded by 
secretly leaving the country, while his friends attended the 



328 MODERN FRANCE 

government sale of his effects, and cleverly bidding against 
each other as they had previously arranged, contrived that 
the first object auctioned off — a cheap table — should 
cover the whole amount of the fine, thus, of course, pre- 
venting any further disposal of the author's property. 

Still, the sensation caused by the trial of so prominent a 
literary man, eventually brought about the result that Zola 
wished, — namely, an order to try the Dreyfus case over 
again. While the victim of this mysterious plot was 
crossing the ocean to stand a second trial, another officer 
(Henry) confessed that he had forged the papers on the 
strength of which Dreyfus had been branded as a traitor. 
This officer was soon after found dead in his prison ; where 
some claim he committed suicide, while others insist that 
he was basely murdered. 

The new Dreyfus trial was held (1899), like the first, by 
army officers. Just at its most critical point, the prisoner's 
lawyer was shot at and wounded so seriously that for eight 
days he could not appear in court. While nothing was 
really proved against Dreyfus, the prejudice of the army 
against him was so great that he was again pronounced 
guilty, " with extenuating circumstances," and sentenced to 
ten years* imprisonment, the five spent on Devil's Island 
being half of the penalty. Once more, the prisoner loudly 
protested that he was unjustly condemned, — a statement 
which the president (Loubet) and his ministers must have 
credited ; for he was shortly after pardoned and allowed 
to rejoin his family, a free man, although sorely broken in 
health and still bearing the stigma of traitor. 

This " pardon," however, could not satisfy Dreyfus, 
who, as soon as he recovered sufficient strength, so sue- 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 329 

cessfully renewed his efforts to clear his name from the 
brand of treachery to France, that he was publicly rein- 
stated in the army (1906), although he no longer had the 
strength to serve as a soldier. At the same time Picquart 
was proved to have acted so honorably that he was ad- 
vanced to the rank of brigadier-general and two years later 
was appointed Minister of War. 

This Dreyfus affair exerted a wide influence upon 
French politics, people vehemently siding for or against 
him, the army, and the government, in turn. But it now 
seems clearly proved that Dreyfus was unjustly accused 
of the crime of some other man, known and shielded by 
those in authority. 

LXVIII. FRANCE IN OUR DAY 

MEANTIME, after a presidency of some six months, 
Casimir-Perier (1894-1895) had resigned, to be 
replaced by Faure (for), sixth president, who concluded an 
alliance with Russia (1895), and exchanged official visits 
with the Czar Nicholas II. 

Loubet (loo-be'), seventh president of the French Re- 
public, duly followed his example, but, before undertaking 
the long journey to Russia, he had occasion to entertain 
many distinguished visitors in Paris, where at the Exposi- 
tion of 1900 there were ninety-seven million admissions. 
The permanent constructions remaining after this vast ex- 
position are the Bridge Alexander, and two great palaces 
(Petit Palais and Grand Palais) where national exhibitions 
of all kinds are constantly held. 



330 MODERN FRANCE 

In 1898 occurred the " Fasho'da Incident" which, for 
a short time, threatened to occasion war between England 
and France in the Nile Valley. It seems that a French 
exploring expedition (under Marchand), starting from the 
French Congo, crossed Africa and raised the French flag at 
Fashoda on the White Nile. The English, whose protec- 
torate over Egypt had continued ever since 1882, and who 
were just completing the subjection of the upper Nile 
valley, strongly objected to the appearance of the French 
in that region, to which they claimed Egypt alone had any 
right. Fortunately, the officials on both sides behaved 
with such dignity and courtesy in this delicate matter, that 
affairs could soon be amicably adjusted by their respective 
governments. 

Meantime, another dispute between England and France, 
regarding possession and trade rights in Siam', lasted three 
years, and was settled at last by making part of Siam neu- 
tral territory between English Bur' ma and French Indo- 
China (1899). 

Various foreign countries have always been anxious to 
get footholds in China so as to trade there. For a long 
while the Chinese, however, would not allow strangers to 
set foot in their country. Little by little this prejudice 
gave way, until five ports had been thrown open for foreign 
trade (1842). Many foreigners settled in these ports, while 
Christian missionaries, in spite of dangers and persecution, 
visited different parts of China to preach the gospel. 
Still, the concessions made by the Chinese did not satisfy 
the foreigners, who gradually gained more and more. 
The English and Germans proved so grasping, that a 
Chinese Religious Society, the ** Boxers," began to plan in 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 331 

1899 to drive all foreigners out of the country, so as to 
keep their old religion and mode of living and trading un- 
changed. 

Because the Germans and English had seized ports in 
China, the French wished one, too, and when it was re- 
fused, simply took possession of Kwangchau (kwang-jo', 
1900). This deprived China of an important port, and as 
the foreigners everywhere had treated the Chinese un- 
fairly, it decided the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion. 
During this war, many foreigners — missionaries and 
others — were slain and their property destroyed. Even 
the lives of the foreign ambassadors were in great danger, 
for they and their friends were besieged in Peking two 
months, during which they were cut off from all communi- 
cation with their governments. Such being the case, the 
foreign powers banded together, and their troops forced a 
way to Peking to relieve the besieged. Still, it was only 
after many lives had been lost, and much property stolen 
or destroyed, that the trouble was finally settled, and the 
foreign troops could withdraw from Peking (1901). 

As you already know, France is a Catholic country ; 
some thirty-six out of its thirty-eight million inhabitants 
profess that religion. During the Revolution, which was 
largely instigated by writers openly opposed to Christianity, 
the Church went down with the Monarchy, and all Church 
property was confiscated for the benefit of the State, while 
Christian worship was partly suppressed. 

But after Bonaparte became Consul, he signed the Con- 
cordat with the Pope (1801) — an agreement providing 
that the State should pay the salaries of the CathoHc clergy, 
and should have certain control over the secular affairs of 



332 MODERN FRANCE 

the Church, the appointment of bishops, etc. This ar- 
rangement lasted nearly one hundred years, during which 
up to eight million dollars a year was paid by the State to 
the Catholic clergy. The State also paid Protestant and 
Jewish clergy proportionate amounts (up to four hundred 
thousand dollars yearly). 

From the beginning the Concordat never proved entirely 
satisfactory to Church or State, but as Monarchy and Em- 
pire upheld the Church, the religious congregations gradu- 
ally grew in strength and in influence, until they largely 
controlled charitable and educational matters, some 16,000 
schools being in their hands. Since 1870, when the Third 
Republic was proclaimed, the majority of the Republicans 
have claimed that clerical teaching was against republican 
principles ; as a result there was so much friction, that in 
1 901 the National Assembly decreed the suppression of 
the teaching and charitable orders, the confiscation of much 
property, and stopped all religious teaching in the public 
schools. These changes were not effected without protest 
and riots, and have in many instances caused great suffer- 
ing to those whose lives they so entirely changed. 

Previously we read how the change from Monarchy to 
Republic (1792) was not accomplished without harshness, 
injustice, and bitterness of feeling, because nations cannot 
change in a day the habits of centuries. You can readily 
understand, therefore, that this sudden change in time- 
honored religious habits caused extreme irritation. The 
interference of the government in the election of certain 
bishops finally brought about a crisis, and the party led by 
Clemenceau (cla-maN-s5') secured the repeal of the Con- 
cordat (1905). 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 333 

Since then, the clergy in France have depended entirely 
upon the voluntary offerings of the people, such church 
buildings, however, as are not reserved for government 
purposes, being in the hands of local trustees and still 
used by the respective churches. This Church and State 
question, the most important topic in France during the 
first decade of the twentieth century, still causes trouble, 
although both parties hope it can in time be satisfactorily 
adjusted. 

Meantime, some other things occurred which are worth 
mentioning, amongst others the eruption of Mt. Pelee 
(pe-la'), on the island of Martinique (mar-ti-neek'), — a 
French colony, — which in May, 1901, destroyed the city of 
St. Pierre (saN pyar') and several villages, thus causing the 
death of some twenty-five thousand people. Not only did 
ruin spread over miles of fertile country, but the home of 
Josephine and her statue — which were the pride of the 
island — suffered greatly. 

In 1902 the army law was changed for the second time. 
After the war of 1870 every young Frenchman had been 
obliged to serve five years unless he could pass a very 
rigid examination. In that case he could become " Volun- 
teer " and serve but one. This requirement was changed in 
Boulanger's time to three years' service, and in 1902 it was 
reduced to two years' army life for every able-bodied citizen. 

In spite of the troublesome Church and State question, 
which kept the country in a state of ferment, Loubet proved 
so calm and able a president, that he served his full time, 
making room for Fallieres (fal-yar^ 1906), who, like his 
predecessors, paid sundry visits to European courts, where 
he has been duly honored as representative of France. 



334 



MODERN FRANCE 



During the early part of the twentieth century, owing to 
the fact that neither pretender was popular, less and less 
has been heard of the Royalist and Imperial parties. So, 
at elections the main question now seems to be which re- 
publican party will get the upper hand. 

During the last fifty years in France many famous names 
occur in every branch of science, literature, and art, some 
of which have already been mentioned. Were merely the 
names of the men and women distinguished in these differ- 
ent branches printed here, they would fill many pages. Still, 
many of you will read either in French or in translations, 
the fascinating works of Daudet (do-de') and other novel- 
ists, the poetry of Rostand (ros-taN'), and the plays of the 
younger Dumas, to mention one name only in each of these 
great branches. You will also doubtless enjoy the music 
of Gounod (goo-no^), and the paintings of Rosa Bonheur 
(bo-ner'), as well as those of the many artists whose names 
appear under illustrations in this book. 

There have, besides, been great physicians like Pas- 
teur (pas-ter^), who, you know, discovered a way to save 
the lives of many babies, and a cure for mad-dog bites if 
you take it in time ; great chemists like Mr. and Mrs. Curie, 
and great inventors of all kinds. There are, for instance, 
inventors of airships there, who have done great things 
since the time when the first balloon rose from the lawn 
at Versailles, in the days of Marie Antoinette, until a 
Frenchman (Bleriot) was first to fly across the English 
Channel to England in a monoplane, in 1909, covering the 
twenty-one miles in thirty- seven minutes. Less than a 
month later he also took part in the flying matches at 
Rheims, where aviators of different nations competed. 



THIRD REPUBLIC (SINCE 1870) 



335 




Bldriot and his Monoplane, just after alighting in England. 



and where England made the longest record, France the 
highest, and the United States the fastest. 

During the winter of 19 10, France suffered greatly from 
terrible floods, which brought ruin to many homes, and at 
one time threatened to destroy a part of Paris. Th6 sol- 
diers were, however, immediately detailed to rescue and 
maintain order, and as generous contributions poured in 
from air sides for the sufferers, the disaster proved less 
great thart was at first feared. 



GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON 



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GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF ORLEANS 



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339 



INDEX 



Key to pronunciation. — Vowels : a in lute, a in fat, a in care, a in fiir, & in last, au in 
author ; e in me, e in met, e in term, i in fine, i in tin, i in fir, i in police ; 6 in note, 6 in 
not, 6 in for, oo in loop ; u. in tiine, li in nut, ii= French u ; y in my, y in hymn. Con- 
sonants : g in gem, g in get; k = German ch ; n= French nasal, affecting the vowel before 
it like ng, but is itself not sounded ; §= z. Italic letters are silent. 



Abd-el-Ka'dir, war with France . 209-272 
Abukir (a-boo-ker'), battles at . . 144, 146 

A'cre (a'ker), Bonaparte at 145 

Aiglon, r (la-gloN') 2G1 

Aix-la-Chapelle (ux-la-sha-pel'), treaty of, 2T 

Alexander I., at TUsit 181-183 

quarrel with Napoleon 202 

war with Napoleon 214 

Al-ex-an 'dri-a, tak6n by Bonaparte . . 142 
Al-ge'ri-a, war in ... . 251-253, 269-272 

Napoleon III. in 288 

Al-gier§', capture of ... . 251-253, 269 

Al'ma, battle of the . . 282 

Alsace (al-sas'), ceded to Germany, 310, 317 

American Kevolution 43^5 

Amiens (a-myaN'), treaty of 158 

Ampere (aN-par'), scientist 255 

A-nam' 321 

Angouleme (aN-goo-lam '), Duchess of, 

127, 217, 22G, 245 
See Royal, Madam. 
Angouleme, Duke of . . . 127, 246, 254 

Ant'werp, siege of 259 

Arago (ar'a-go), scientist . . . . 255,273 

Arch of the Star 187 

Arche du Carrousel (tirsh dii ca-roo-zel'), 186 

Arcole (ar'co-lu), battle of 137 

A-ris'to-crats. See Nobles. 

Army law 333 

Art 35, 199, 255, 273, 334 

Artois (ar-twii'). Count of . . 43, 243, 245 

as Charles X 247-255 

Aspern (tis'pern), battle of 193 

Auerstadt (ou'er-shtet), battle of . . . 179 

Aus'ter-litz, battle of 173-175 

Column of 176, 177 

Aus'tri-a, in Empire ..... 13, 175 
in Italy, 133-137, 155-157, 221, 259, 286-288 

in Seven Years' War 31 

in War of Austrian Succession . . 25-27 
war with (1791) 75, 77 



Austria, war with (Directory and 


General Bonaparte) . . . 


133-139 


war with (Consulate) . . . 


. 154-157 


war with (3d Coalition) . . 


171-175 


war %vith (5th CoaUtion) . . 


190-193 


war with (6th Coalition) . . 


211-215 


war with (ItaUau war) .... 


286-288 


war with Prussia 


. . 292 



Avignon (a-ven-j'ON'), acquired by French, 67 

Bailly (ba-ye'), mayor of Paris . . .61, 69 

Ba-la-klii'va, battle of 282 

Bal-zac', writer 273 

Barras (ba-ra'), and Bonaparte. . 97,120 

Director 127, 128 

Barry (ba-re'), Madame dii . . . .33,34 

death of 115 

diamond necklace 47 

Bastille (bas-tel'), prison IS, 28 

fall of 57-61 

key of, sent to Washington .... 68 
Ba-ta'vi-an Pvcpublic 119, 157 

See Uolland. 
Battle of the Nations ....... 211 

Battle of the Three Emperors . . . .173 

Bautzen (bou'tsen), battle of . . . .210 

Ba-va'ri-a, ally of France in War of the 
Austrian Succession 25 

ally of Napoleon 172,191-193 

Bayonne (ba-y on'). Napoleon at . . . 189 
Bazaine (ba-zen'). General . . . 299, 305 
Beauharnais (bo-ar-ne'), Eugene de, 
childhood of 131, 132 

in Italy 171, 176 

marriage of 175 

Beauharnais, Hortense de, early life of, 

131,132 

marriage of 175 

Beauharnais, Josephine de. See Jose- 
phine. 
Beaumarchais (bo-mar-she'), dramatist, 46 



341 



342 



INDEX 



Bel-forf', siege of 805 

Bel'gi-um, acquired by France . . 84, 138 

acquired by Holland 221 

independence 259 

Bel-ler' o-phon. Napoleon on . . 235, 236 
Belzunce (bel-zuNs'), Bishop .... 23 
Beranger (ba-rilN-zha'), poet , 251, 255, 273 
Ber-e-§i'na Eiver, passage of . . 206-208 
Ber'lin, captured by Napoleon .... 179 

Ber-na-dot^e' 198, 211 

Bernardin de St. Pierre (ber-nar-daN ' de 

saN-pyar'), author 46 

Ber'ry, Duchess of . . . 243, 245, 261, 262 

Berry, Duke of 243, 245 

Bis'marck, brings on Franco-German 

war 295-296 

at Sedan 300 

imposes terms of peace . . . . 308-310 

" Black Cardinals " 197 

Bleriot (bla-re-o') 835 

Blucher (blu'Ker), General . . . 229-231 

Blues 93 

Bois de Boulogne (bwa de boo-lon'y') . 279 
Bo nS-parte, Jerome, King of West- 
phalia ....... 183, 188, 211 

marriage of , 187 

Bonaparte, Joseph, King of Naples . . 175 

King of Spain 189, 213 

Bonaparte, Letitia 166 

Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 175, 198 
Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon. See Napo- 
leon III. 

Bonaparte, Lucien 148-150, 166 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I. 

Bonaparte, Pauline 222 

Bonapartes, genealogy 339 

Bonapartists 259, 261, 321 

Bonheur (bo-ner'), Eosa 334 

Bordeaux (bor-do'), Duchess of Angou- 

leme at 226 

Bordeaux, Duke of 245 

See Chambord. 

Bordeaux Compact 310 

Bo-ro-di'no, battle at 203 

Boucher (boo-sha') 35 

Boulanger (boo-liiN-zha'), General . . . 322 

Boulevards 286 

Boulogne (boo-lon'), camp at, 

162, 167-168, 172 
Bourbon (boor'bun), Duke of . . . 23, 24 

Bourbon family 14, 337 

Bourgeois (boor-zhwa') 15 

Bourgeoisie (boor-zhwa-ze') 257 

Bourmont (boor-moN ), General . 253,269 

Boxers, in China 330, 331 

Bra-giin'za, House of 188 

Bread riots 62-65, 119 



Brienne (bre-en'), Bonaparte at . 129, 130 

Brienne, minister 46, 53 

Brumaire (brii-mar') 122 

Buf'fon, scientist 30 

Cadoudal (ca-doo-dal'), conspiracy of . 162 

Caen (caN), Girondists at 94 

Cagliostro (cal-yos'tro), astrologer . . 47 
Cairo (ki'ro), taken by Bonaparte . . 144 
Calendar, Kevolutionai-y .... 122, 175 

Ck-\onne' , minister 46 

Cambaceres (ciiN-ba-sa-res'), Consul . . 152 
Ciim'po For'mio, treaty of . . . 188, 139 

Can'a-da 81, 32 

Capet (cfi'pet or ca-pe'), Hugh .... 13 
Ca-pe'tian (-shan) dynasty ..... 13 

Car-cas-son«6' 279, 280 

Car-lot'ta, wife of Maximilian .... 291 

Carmagnole (car-ma-nyol') 78 

Car-no^', Eevolutionist 93 

Director 127, 129 

minister under Napoleon 227 

Carnot, Sa-di', president .... 328, 325 

Carrier (car-ya') 108, 109, 117 

Carrousel (ca-roo-zel'), Arche du . . . 186 

Casablanca (cii-za-byan'ca) 144 

Ca-gi-mir'-Perier (pa-iya'), president, 

325, 329 

Castles, burned (1789) 62 

Catholic religion in France . 13, 14, 881-333 

restored by Napoleon 161 

Cavaignac (ca-ven-yak'), General . . . 276 
Cavour (ca-voor'), Italian statesman, 286, 292 

Center, party 74 

Chamber of Deputies, under Louis XYIII., 

242 

under Third Eepublic 821 

Chamber of Peers 242 

Chambord (shaN-bor'), Count of, 

245, 255, 261, 818, 320 
Champollion (shaN-pol-yoN') .... 158 
Champs :filysees (shaN za-le-za') . . . 187 
Chapelle Expiatoire (sha-pel' ex-pya- 

twiir') 92, 103, 256 

Charlemagne (shar'le-man) 13 

Charles X 247-255 

as Count of Artois .... 43, 243, 245 

death of 255 

Charter of 1814 220, 242 

revised 257 

Chateaubriand (sha-to-bre-aN'), author, 

199, 239 
Chenier (sha-nya'), executed .... 110 
Cherasco (ka-ras'ko), treaty of ... . 134 

" Child of Destiny " 261 

" Child of Europe " 245 

" Child of Miracle " 245 



INDEX 



343 



China and foreigners .... 2S9, 330, 331 

Chios (ki'os), massacre of 251 

Chi§'l6-hurst, Napoleon III. and Eugenie 

at 303 

Choiseul (shwa-zel') 82, 35 

Cholera in France (1832) 259 

Chouans (shoo'anz) 98 

Church in France ...... 331-333 

in Eevolution 66, 67, lOT 

Napoleon and 160, 161 

Cis-al'pine Republic . . . 138, lot, 171 

Civic oath 67 

Clemenceau (cla-maN-so') 332 

Clichy(kle-she'), battle of 215 

Clo'vis 13, 248 

Clubs, Eevolutionary 67-69 

Coalition, Third 162 

Fourth 177 

Fifth 191 

Sixth 202, 209 

Co 'chin China, French in 289 

Code Napoleon 159, 160 

Cologne (co-Ion'), Napoleon at . . . .168 

Colonies 81, 272, 821, 881, 333 

Committee of Public Safety . . 93,97,115 

Commune of Paris 813-315 

Couipidgne (coN-pyen'y'), Napoleon III. 

at 278 

Conciergerie (coN-syer-zhe-re'), Marie 

Antoinette in . . 100 

Con-cor'dat 160, 161, 331, 832 

Condes (coN-da'), last of 163 

Coudorcet (koN-dor-se'), executed . .110 
Confederation of the Ehine . . . 175, 179 
Constantinople, importance of ... . 281 

Constitution of 1791 78 

Constitution of 1798 97 

Constitution of the year III. (1795) . . 127 
Constitution of the Consulate (1799), 

151, 152 

Constitution of 1875 320 

Consulate 150-165 

Continental Blockade . . 179, 180, 188, 202 

Continental System 179, 180 

Convention. See National Convention. 

Cor-day', Charlotte 94-96 

Cor-de-Ker§' 67 

Cor'si-ca, acquired by France .... 36 
Council of Ancients . . . 120, 127, 148-150 
Council of Five Hundred . 120, 127, 148-150 

Coup d''etat {coo Aa-ta') 140 

Cousin (coo-zaN'), scientist 278 

Crefeld (cra'felt), battle of 31 

Cre'ole 181 

Cri-me'an War . 281-282 

Curie (kii-re'), scientist 334 

Cuvier (ku-vya'), scientist . . . 255, 273 



Daguerre (d4-gar'), scientist .... 272 
Dal-ma'ti-a (-shi-a), acquired by Austria 

(1797) 1.38 

acquired by France 193 

DaN-toN', Eevolutionist . . 82, 86, 93, 117 

execution of 109 

Darboy(dar-bwa'), archbishop of Paris . 814 

Daudet (do-de') 334 

Dau'phin, title 26 

Dauphin, the Little, declared King 

Louis XVII. . 92 

in flight to Varennes 71-73 

leaving the Tuileries 80 

parting from Louis XVI 88 

parting from Marie Antoinette ... 98 

Simon's care of 98,99 

Temple prison 124-126 

Da-vid', artist 199 

Debt, public 16, 18, 33, 41 

Delacroix (de-la-crwa'), painter . . . 255 
De Lamballe (liiN-bal'), Madame, mur- 
dered 82 

De la Moite' , Madame 48-50 

Delaroche (de-la-rosh'), artist . . 255, 273 
Delavigne (de-la-ven'y'), author . . . 255 

De Les-seps' 293, 324^-325 

Departments in France .... 67, 321 

Desaix (de-za'). General 157 

De Saxe', Marshal 26 

DesmouUns (da-moo-laN') ... 57, 109 

De Tocgwe'ville 273 

Det'ting-en, battle of 25 

Devil's Island 826 

Diamond necklace 46-51 

Diderot (ded-ro'), encyclopedia. ... 80 
Directoire (de-rek-twar') fashion . . . 128 

Directors 120, 127 

Directory 127 

coup d^etat of Directors (1797) . . . 140 

overthrown 147-150 

Dreg 'den. Napoleon at 203 

battle of 211 

Dre-waj, Orleans mausoleum at ... . 268 
Dreyfus (dra-fus'), Alfred . . . 325-829 

Dii-mas', author 272, 334 

Dumouriez (dii-moo-rya' ), General . 84, 94 

Eagle, standards 168, 224 

" Eagle " (Napoleon) 266 

"Eaglet" 261 

Edge'worth, Abbe 88, 91 

E'gypt, French in ... . 142-148, 158 

in recent times 323, 824 

Eiffel (ef el) Tower 328 

El'ba 218-228 

Elizabeth, Madam, execution of . 112, 113 

in flight to Varennes 71-73 



344 



INDEX 



Elizabeth, Madam, in Temple . . 97,111 

in Tuileries mob T8 

ifcmigres (a-me-gra') 62 

banished 84 

recalled under Napoleon . . . 153, 159 

under Charles X 248, 250 

under Louis XVIII. 220 

Empire, First French, established, 165-lTl 
Empire, Second French .... 2T8-301 

Empire, Old German 13, 175 

Enghien (aN-gaN*), Duke of . . . 168-165 

England, and China 330, 331 

and Continental Blockade 180 

Fashoda incident 330 

Hundred Tears' War with France . . 14 

in Crimean War 281-282 

in Peninsular Campaign . . . 189, 190 

in Seven Years' War 31 

in War of Austrian Succession . . 25-27 

rule in Egypt 324 

war with (1778-1783) 43-45 

war with (in Egypt) . . . 144-148, 158 
war with (3d Coalition) . 162-163, 171 

war with (4th Coalition) 177 

war with (5th Coalition) 191 

war with (6th Coalition) . 202, 213-215 

war with (1815) .... 229-233, 239 

Erfurt (er'foort), conference at . . . .189 

Esterhazy (es'ter-ha-ze) 327 

Eugenie de Montijo (e-zha-ne' de mon- 

te'ho) 278 

and Isabella of Spain 293 

and war with Prussia 296 

deposed 303 

Exchange, founded 23 

Eylau (i'lou), battle of 181 

Falli^res (fal-yar'), president .... 333 

Family Compact 32 

Farmers-general 21 

Fa-sho'da incident 380 

Faure (for), president 329 

Fa'vre, Jules (zhiil) . . . 302, 308, 309, 310 

Federation Festival 68 

Feudal system 14 

Feuillants (fe-yaN') 67,264 

Flag, origin of 61 

Fleurus (fle-riis'), battle of 115 

Fleury (fle-re'), minister 28, 24 

Flying machines 335 

Fontainebleau (foN-ten-blo'), Napoleon 

at 215-219 

Pope guest at 168 

Pope prisoner at 188 

Fontenoy (foNt-nwa'), battle .... 26 

Fouche (foo-sha') 152 

Fouquier-Tinville (foo-kyu'-taN-vcl') . 117 



Francis Joseph, of Austria 287 

Franklin, Benjamin 43-45 

Franks . 11, 13 

French language 13 

French people 11 

Friedland (frGd'lant), battle of , . 181, 182 
Fulton and steamboat 172 

Gam-bet'ta 305, 309 

Ga-ri-bal'di 292, 293 

Gauls 11 

Ge-ne'va, Bonaparte at 155 

Genoa (.jen'o-a), cedes Corsica .... 36 

Ligurian Republic 140 

siege of 155 

united to France 171 

George II. of England at Dettingen . . 25 

Gerard (zha-rar'), artist 199 

Gericault (zha-re-ko'), painter .... 255 
Germans, war with Napoleon (6th Coali- 
tion) 209-215 

Germany, and China 330, 331 

in Empire 13 

unification of 308 

See Prussia, Austria, etc. 

''Gilded Youth " 117 

Gi-ron'dists, condemned 94 

execution of 105 

Gliick, musician 43 

Goethe (ge'te), and Napoleon .... 189 

Gounod (goo-no') 334 

Grand Opera House 318-320 

GraNcf Palais (pa-le') 329 

Grh\e-\oUe' , battle of 298, 299 

"Gray-coat" 135,266 

Greece, independent 251 

Gre-no'ble, Napoleon at 224 

Gretry (gra-tre'), musician 43 

Greuze (grez), artist 46 

Grevy (gra-ve'), president . . . 321, 322 

Gros, artist 199 

Grouchy (groo-she'). General . . 229, 231 

Guerin (ga-raN'), artist 199 

Guillotin (ge-yo-taN'), executed . . .110 

Guillotine (gil'o-ten) . . 87, 110, 114, 120 

Guizot (ge-z6'), author .... 255, 273 

minister 257, 274 

Hai'ti, slavery abolished in 69 

war in 162 

Ham (aN), Louis Napoleon at . . 265,266 
Hebert (a-bar'), Revolutionist . . 107, 113 
Hel-ve'tian (-shan) Republic . . . 140, 157 

Henry IV 14 

Hi-er-o-glyph'ics 158 

Hoche (osh), General 139 

Ho'fer, An'dre-as 193 



INDEX 



345 



Ho-Aen-lin'den, battle of 157 

Holland, in War of Austrian Succession 25 

Eevolutionists conquer 119 

under Louis Bonaparte 175 

united to France 198 

See Netherlands. 

Holy Alliance 246 

Holy Roman Empire 175 

Hugh Capet (hu ca'pet or ca-pe') ... 13 

Hu'go, Victor, author 255, 273 

Hundred Days 227-235 

Hundred Years' War 14 

I-be'ri-an Campaign 189, 190 

Il-lyr'i-an Provinces, acquired by France, 193 

India, acquired by England 32 

Ingres (aw'gr'), painter .... 255, 273 

Ink-er-man', battle of 282 

Invalides (aK-va-led') 68 

Napoleon's tomb 266 

regilding of 281 

Iron Crown 171 

Isly (ez-le'), battle of 270 

Is'tri-a, acquired by Austria (1797) . . 138 

acquired by France 193 

I-tal'ian War (1859) 286-288 

It'a-ly, in Empire 13 

Napoleon Bonaparte in, as general, 133-140 
Napoleon Bonaparte in, as consul, 156, 157 

Napoleon in, as emperor 171 

rebellion of 1830 259 

republics in 138, 140, 147, 157 

unification of 287-288,292 

Jac'o-bing 67, 109 

Jaffa, Bonaparte at 145, 146 

Jemappes (zhe-map'), battle of .... 84 

Jena (ya'na), battle of 178 

Jes'u-its 34 

Joan of Arc 14 

Joinville (zhwaN-vel'), Prince of, 

263, 265, 266 

Josephine, at the Tuileries 153 

at Malmaison . 154 

coronation of 168-171 

death of 234 

divorced 194-196 

early life of 131-133 

escape from guillotine .... 117, 132 

marriage of 129, 132 

Jourdan (zhoor-daN'), General . . . 137 

Joyous Entry 65 

Junot (zhii-no'). General .... 108, 188 

King, French, grovs^th of power . . 14, 15 

King of Rome 200, 260 

Kleber (kla-bar'). General, 147, 148, 157, 158 
Knights Hos'pi-tal-ers ,,,,,,. 142 



Knitters 116 

Kwang-chau' (-jo') 331 

Labedoyfere (la-ba-dwa-yar') . . 225, 240 

Lafayette, aids Americans 44 

in first French Revolution 61, 63, 64, 69, 81 
in Revolution of 1830 . . . 250, 255-257 

life of 263, 264 

Lamartine (la-mar-ten') . . 255, 273, 275 

Laplace (la-plas'), scientist 278 

La-va-letie' 240 

Lavoisier (la-vwa-zya'), executed . . . 110 

Law, John, financier 20r22 

Le-bruN', Consul 156 

Lebrun, Madame, artist 42 

Left, party 74 

Legion of Honor 153 

Legislative Assembly, established . . 72 

parties in 74 

Legislative Assembly of 1848 .... 276 

Legislative Corps 152, 185 

Legislative Corps in Second Empire . . 278 

Le-git'i-mists 257, 259, 318, 320 

Leipzig (lip'sik), battle of . . . 211, 212 

Le'o-pold, King of Belgium 259 

Le Pere La Chaise (le par' la shez') . . 315 
Lettres de cachet (let'r' de ka-she') . . 28 

Ligny (len-ye'), battle of 229 

Li-gu'ri-an Republic 140, 157 

annexed to France 171 

Lin-n£e'us, scientist 30 

Lion of Lucerne 80 

Literature, under Louis XV. ... 30, 31 

under Napoleon 199 

under Restoration 255 

under Louis Philippe 273 

recent 334 

Little Trianon (trya-noN*) 38 

" Little Corporal" .... 134,225,266 

Lo'di, battle of 134, 135 

Loire (Iwar) River 109 

Lom'bar-dy, added to Sardinia .... 287 

L6r-ra*ne', acquired by France . ... 25 

part ceded to Germany .... 310, 317 

Loubet (loo-be'), president . . . 329, 333 

Louis XIV 15,16 

Louis XV 16-36 

death 36 

diamond necklace 46 

early life 16, 17, 19, 20 

marriage of 23-24 

Louis XVI 37-92 

accession of 37 

adopts constitution 73 

amusements of 38 

deposed 84 

diamond necklace 47-51 



346 



INDEX 



Louis XVI., execution of 89-92 

Federation Festival 69 

flight to Varennes 71-73 

prisoner in Temple 81,86 

removes to Legislative Assembly . . 80 

removes to Paris 65 

States-General and 53-56 

trial of 86-88 

Tuileriesmob 78-80 

Louis XVII 92, 123 

See Dauphin, Little 
Louis XVIII., accessions of . . . 217,239 

as regent '92 

flees from Napoleon 227 

reign of 220, 240-247 

Louis Philippe (fe-lep') .... 257-274 

abdication of 274 

accession of 256 

during Eevolution 94 

plot against 262 

Louise, Queen of Prussia, 

177-178, 183-185, 295, 317 
Lou-i'-g'i-an'a, and John Law . , .21,22 

sold 162 

L'Ouverture, Toussaint(too-saN'loo-ver- 

tur') 162 

Louvre (loo'vr'), Bonapai-te fills with art 

treasures 139 

despoUed . 240 

finished 293 

saved from Communists 315 

Lowe, Sir Hudson 235 

Lo-yo'la 34 

Luneville (m-na-vel'), treaty of . . . 157 

Liit'zen, battle of 210 

Luxembourg (liik-saN-boor') palace, oc- 
cupied by Directors ...... 127 

Lux 'em-burg, independent 293 

Lyons, Girondist rebellion in .... 96 

Mac-Ma-7Mm', General . . . 286, 299-300 

president 318,320,321 

Mad-a-gas'car 272, 321 

Made-lMne', Church of the 186 

Magdeburg (uiaK'de-boorK), captured by 

Napoleon 179 

Ma-gen 'ta, battle of 286 

Ma-!a-koff", battle of 282, 283 

Malesherbes (mal-zerb'), minister . . 40, 42 
Malmaison (mal-me-zoN*), home of Jose- 
phine 196 

Malta (maul'ta), captured by Bonaparte 142 

taken by English 158 

Mam'e-liikes 144 

Man'tii-a, siege of 137, 138 

Marat (ma-ra') ...... 82, 94, 117 

murdered 95, 96 



Marchand (mar-shaN') 330 

Ma-ren 'go, battle of 157 

Ma-rl 'a TAe-re'sa of Austria 25 

Ma-rie', queen of Louis XV. . . . 23, 24 
Marie Amelie (a-ma-le'), queen . . . 268 
Marie Antoinette (aN-twa-net'), amuse- 

mfents of 38 

children 43, 52 

cipher correspondence 70 

Conciergerie prison 100 

diamond necklace 47-51 

etiquette 36 

execution of 103-104 

flight to Varennes . 71-73 

marriage 35 

parting from children .... 98, 100 

parting from Louis XVI 88, 89 

Temple prison 81, 97 

trial of 101-102 

Tuileries mob ........ 78-80 

Versailles mob 64-65 

Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon . 196-198 

and son ^. . . , . 200 

deserts Napoleon 237 

regent 214 

Marie Therdse Charlotte (ta-rez' shar- 

lot'). See Royal, Madam. 
Marmont (mar-moN'), General .... 253 

Marseillaise (mar-se-yaz') 76 

Marseilles (mar-salz') , plague in . . . 23 

Marshals of the Emjnre 167 

Martin (mar-taN') , historian 273 

Mar-ti-niq«e', colony 333 

Maupeou (mo-pa-oo'), chancellor ... 34 
Max-i-mil'ian, in Mexico .... 290-292 

Mes'mer 45 

Metternich (met'er-niK) 210 

Metz, surrender of 299, 305 

Mexico, trouble with 263 

war with 290-291 

Michelet (mesh-le'), historian .... 273 

Mignard (men-yiir'), artist 35 

Mil'an, Bonaparte in 135 

Min'den, battle of 31 

Mirabeau (me-ra-bo') 56, 66 

death of 70 

Mis-sis-sip 'pi Company 21, 22 

Modena (mau'da-na), Duke of ... . 137 

Monarchy, Old 13-16 

Monsieur (me-sye') 40 

M6n< Ce-ni's' tunnel 284 

Mon-te-bel'lo, battles of .... 157,286 

Mon-tes-quiew', author 31 

Mont-gol'fi-er 45 

Moore, Sir John .190 

Moreau (mo-ro'), General . 137, 154, 162 
death of 211 



INDEX 



347 



Mo-roc'co 270, 333 

Mos'cow, Napoleon at 203, 204 

Mountain, party 74 

Mo'zart, musician 43 

Murat (mii-ra'), General .... 146, 208 

King of Naples 189, 208, 228 

put to death 241 

Na'ple§, as Parthenopean Eepublic . . 140 
Joseph Bonaparte King of .... 175 

Murat King of 189 

restoration in 228 

united to Sardinia 292 

Na-po'le-on I., abdications of . . 216, 238 
administration of . 152-153, 159, 185, 199 

Austerlitz battle 173-175 

Bellerophon journey .... 235-236 

birth of 36 

Brienne school 129-130 

buried in France 265-267 

causes of downfall 202 

character 133, 135, 151, 179 

conspiracies against . . . 161, 162, 208 
Convention defended by . . . 120-121 

coronation of 168-171 

coup d'etat of 148-150 

death of 238, 246 

dominions in 1812 200 

early life 129-132 

Elba sojourn 218-223 

Egyptian expedition 141-147 

emperor 165-171 

family of 166, 175 

First Consul 150-153, 161 

Fontainebleau farewell .... 215-219 

Hundred Days 227-235 

in Italy as general .... 129, 132-139 
in Italy as First Consul . . . 155-156 
in Italy as king and emperor .... 171 

Jena battle 178 

Josephine and . . 129, 132, 153, 194-196 

Lodi battle 134-135 

loss of life caused by 233 

marriages of 129, 132, 196-198 

Prussian cam[)aign 179-185 

Eatisbon battle 191 

return from Egypt 147-14S 

return from Elba 222-227 

return from Italy 140-141 

Russian campaign 203-209 

St. Bernard journey 155-156 

St. Helena prison 235-238 

Spanish campaign . . . ' 190 

Syrian expedition 145 

Toulon siege 96, 107-108 

Tuileries mob 79 

Waterloo campaign 229-233 



Napoleon II 233, 246, 260-261 

as " King of Eome " 200 

Napoleon III., as Louis Napoleon Bona- 
parte 262, 205-266 

as president 277-278 

becomes emperor 278 

coup d'etat of 277 

deposed 302, 303 

Ham prison 265-266 

improvements 279 

plot against 284, 286 

reign of 278-302 

war with Austria 286-288 

war with Prussia 297, 300 

Napoleonic Legend 238 

National Assembly ..... 68, 66, 67 

draws up constitution 78 

National Assembly of 1848 276 

National Assembly of 1871 . . . 309-313 
National Assembly of Third Eepublic . 320 
National Convention, begins work . . 84 

condemns Louis XVI 86-87 

control of provinces 108 

Eeign of Terror 93-117 

work of 84,119,120,122 

National Defense, government of, 

302, 303, 305 

National Guard 61 

and Charles X 250, 258 

in Commune 309, 812-813 

National workshops 276 

Na-va-rii'no, battle of 251 

Neck'er, minister 46 

second ministry of ... . 53, 54, 57 

third ministry of . 61, 69 

Neerwinden (nar'vin-den), battle of . . 94 
Nel'son, Admiral .... 141, 144, 173 
Nemours (ne-moor'), Duke of ... . 268 

Neth'er-lands, in Empu-e 13 

independent (1814) 221 

See Holland. 
Ney (na). Marshal, in Eussian Campaign, 

206-209 

joins Napoleon in 1815 226 

shot 240 

Nice (nes) 84, 138, 288 

Nie'raen, Napoleon at 181 

Nightingale, Miss Florence 282 

Nile, battle of 144 

Nobles 13, 14, 15 

emigrate 62 

privileges of .63 

September Massacres 82-84 

See tlmigres. 

Notre Dame (no'tr' dam') 25 

as Temple of Eeason 107 

restored to Catholicism 161 



348 



INDEX 



Old Kegime (ra-zhorn') 16 

Ollivier (o-le-vyu'), minister .... 294 

Or'le-an-ists, party 818, 320 

Or'le-ans, Ferdinand, Duke of, 263, 267, 268 
Orleans, Louis Philippe, Duke of . . . 256 
See Louis Philippe. 

Orleans, Philip, Duke of 16-28 

Orleans, Philip Equality, Duke of , . 87, 105 
Orleans family 838 

Paine, Thomas, in Convention .... 87 

Palais Royal (pa-le' rwa-yal') .... 18 

garden, where Revolution began . 57, 58 

Pan-a-raa' Canal 324, 325 

Panama scandal 325 

Pan-the'on 36, 70 

Papin (pa-paN'), and steamboat . . . 172 

Paris, capital 18 

captured by allies 215, 239 

captured by Germans .... 304-309 
captured by national government, 314-315 

Commune 313-315 

floods in (1910) 335 

fortifications of 267 

improvements of Napoleon III. , . 279 

Reign of Terror 117 

Revolution in 57-61, 121 

Revolution of 1830 253, 254 

Revolution of 1848 274 

treaty of 1763 31 

treaty of 1783 45 

treaty of 1814 221 

treaty of 1815 239, 241 

world's fairs 298, 321, 823, 329 

Paris, Count of 275, 31 S 

Parliament, Maupeon's 34 

Parliaments, powers of 15, 32 

Par'ma, Duke of 137 

Par-then-o-pe'an Rei)ubllc 140 

Pas'cal, and Jesuits 34 

Pas-tewr , physician 335 

Patterson, Miss, weds Jerome Bona- 
parte 187 

Pe-king', expeditions to ... . 289, 331 

Pelee (pe-lii'), Mt., eruption 333 

Pen-in'su-lar Campaiurn .... 189, 190 
Perier, Casimir-(ca-ze-nier' pfi-rya'), min- 
ister 260 

Perier, Casimir-, president . . . 325, 829 
Peter the Great, visits Louis XV. . . 20 

Pe-tK 'Palais (pa-le') 829 

PhiHp V. of Spain 16 

Philippe :6galite (fe-lep' a-ga-le-tu'), 87, 105 

Photography 272 

Picquart (pe-car'). General . . . 327,329 

Pied'mont, Bonaparte in 134 

Pierrefonds (pyar-foN'), castle of . . . 279 



Pi'us VI 147 

Pius VII 168 

Place de la Concorde (plas de la con- 

cord') 91 

Germans in 312 

named . . .' 120 

Plon-Plon (ploN-ploN) 321 

Po'land, partition of 181 

under Napoleon 183 

War of the Polish Succession . . .24, 25 
Pompadour', Marquise de (mar-kez de 

poN-pa-door') 27, 32 

Poniatowski (po-nya-tof ske), Prince. . 211 
Pont de la Concorde (poN de la con- 

cord') 59 

Pope, and Church in France," 

67, 187, 160, 331-333 

at Napoleon's coronation 168 

contest with Napoleon 188 

concordat of Napoleon . . . . 160,161 

imprisoned by Director}'' 147 

imprisoned by Napoleon 213 

supported by French troops, 277, 292, 293 
Por'tii-gal, and Napoleon . . . . 188,189 
Potatoes introduced into France ... 40 

Pi-ess'burg, treaty of 175 

Prince Imperial, birth . 284 

boyhood 288, 290 

death of 821 

in Franco-Prussian War . . . 297, 300 

Prince-President 277 

Prudhon (proo-doN'), artist 199 

Prussia (prush'a), growth of .... 295 

in Seven Years' War 31 

in War of Austrian Succession ... 25 

war with (1791) 75, 77 

war with (4th Coalition) . . . 177-185 
war with (Oth Coalition) . . . 209-215 
war with (1815) .... 229-238, 239 

war with (1870) 295-312 

war with Austria 292 

Pyramids, battle of 144 

Railways 272, 284 

Rambouillet (raN-boo-ye'), Charles X. at, 254 

Rat'is-bon, battle of 191 

Reason, worship of 107, 113 

Recamier (ra-ca-mya'), Madame . . . 128 
Red, white, and blue, origin of flag . . 61 
Reichstadt (riK'shtat), Duke of . . . . 260 

See Napoleon II. 
Reign of Terror .... 93, 108, 117, 118 

Reign of Terror, white 117, 241 

Religious wars 14 

Republic, First, proclaimed 84 

See Consiitutio7i. 
Republic, Second 276-278 



INDEX 



349 



Eepublic, Third, beginnings of, 

302-306, 309-318 

constitution 320-321 

Republican marriage 109 

Revolution, beginning of 57-61 

end of 121 

Revolution of 1830 253-256 

Revolution of 1848 273-276 

Revolutionary Tribunal 114 

Rheims (remz or raNs), flying matches 

at, 335 

Right, party 74 

Riots, bread 62-65, 119 

Rivoli (re'vo-le), battle of . . . 137, 138 

Ro-ber^', Leopold, painter 255 

Robespierre (ro-bes-pyar') 94 

execution of 116-117 

religion of 113-114 

rule of 114-115 

Rochefort (rosh-f5r'), Napoleon at . . 234 

R6-/taN', Cardinal de 47-50 

Ro-laN(Z', Madame, executed .... 106 

Roman Republic (1797) 140 

Romans 11 

Rome, French troops In . . 277, 292, 293 

Ro-set'ta stone 158 

Rossbach (ros'baK), battle of .... 31 

Ros-tiiNC?.', poet 334 

Rouget de risle (roo-zha' de lei') ... 75 
Rousseau (roo-so'), author .... 31, 73 

Royal domain 14 

Royal, Madam 43 

as Duchess of Angouleme, 127, 217, 226, 245 

in flight to Yarennes 71-73 

in Temple . . . .97,111,123,126,127 

marriage of 127 

questioned by jailers 101 

Rueil (rii-e'y'), Josephine's tomb at . . 234 
Russia (rush 'a), alliance with (1895) . . 329 

in Seven Years' War 31 

in War of Austrian Succession ... 25 
war with (3d Coalition) . .171, 173, 174 
war with (4th Coalition) . . . 177, 181 
war with (6th Coalition) . . . 202-208 
war vrith (Crimean War) . , . 281-282 

Saarbriicken (zar-briik'en), battle of . . 297 

Sadova (sa'do-va), battle of 292 

St. Ber-nard', crossed by Bonaparte, 155, 156 
St. Beuve (sai^t bev'), author .... 273 
St. Cloud (saN cloo'), councils at . . . 149 

destroyed 315 

St. Denis (saN de-ne'). Abbey of ... 16 

tombs at destroyed 108 

St. lle-lc'na. Napoleon at . . . 235-238 
St. Ouen (saN twiini), Declaration of . 217 
Saint-Si'mon, and Duke of Orleans . . 18 



Sal'ic Law 13 

Salt tax, abolished 67 

Sand, George, author 273 

San§-cu-16t<6s' (or saN-cii-lot') ... 77 
Sar-din'i-a, enlargement of . . . 288, 292 

in Crimean War 281-282 

war with 133, 134 

war Avith Austria 286-288 

Sa-voy' 84, 138, 288 

Sax'on-y, in Seven Years' War ... 31 

Schef fer, Ary, painter 255, 273 

Schonbrunn (shen-broon'), Napoleon at, 193 

Schools 84, 263, 332 

Science, recent 334, 335 

8e-bas't6-p61, siege of 281-282 

Second Republic ....... 276-278 

Se-dan', battle of 300-302 

Seine (san) River 172 

Senate 152, 185 

Senate in Second Empire 278 

Senate of Third Republic 320 

September Massacres 82 

Seven Years' War 31 

Sevres (sa'vr'), factory established . . 36 

Sl-am' 330 

Sicily (sis'i li), acquired by Sardinia . . 292 

Sieyes (syu-yes') 87, 148 

Si'mon, keeper of the Dauphin, 

98, 99, 117, 124 

Sis-mon'di, historian 273 

Smith, Sir Sidney 145, 147 

Smo-lensk', battle at 203 

S61-fe-ri'n6, battle of 287 

Spain, Family Compact 32 

in 6th Coalition 202 

in War of Austrian Succession ... 25 
Napoleon and ... . 189, 190, 210, 213 

Revolution of 1868 293 

war with Holy Alliance 246 

Spicheren (spiK'er-en), battle of . . . 297 
Stael (stii'el), Madame de, author . . . 199 
Stan'is-las Leszczynski (lesh-chin'ske), 

23, 24, 25 
States-General, composition of . . . 15, 54 

meeting of 1789 53-56, 63 

See National AssemMy. 
Strassburg (shtrJis'boorK), siege of, 304, 805 
Suez (soo-ez') Canal . . 144, 293, 323-324 

Suspects 82 

Sweden, Bernadotte King of .... 199 

in 3d Coalition 171 

Swiss guards of Louis XVI 80 

Switz'er-land, as Helvetian Republic, 

140, 157 

in Empire 13 

independent (1814) 221 

Syr'i-a, F ench troops in 289 



3SO 



INDEX 



Tal' ley-rand, at Federation Festival . . 69 
favors restoration of Bourbons . . .217 
Napoleon and ... . 140, 152, 16T, 186 

opinion of Enghien affair 165 

prime minister of Louis XVIII., 239, 241 

Tallien (ta-lyaN'), Madame 128 

Tal-ma', tragedian . 189 

Tax-farming 21 

Tennis Court Oath 55 

T^er-mi-dor' 122 

Tliierry (tye-re'), author 255 

Thiers (tyar), historian 273 

minister 257, 304 

opposes war with Prussia 296 

president 318 

provisional government 310-318, 316-317 

Third Estate 15, 16, 54 

Third Eepublic, origin . . 302-306, 309-318 

constitution of 820-821 

Thorvaldsen (tor-val'sen) 80 

Ti-en'tsin', treaty of 289 

Til'sit, Napoleon at 181 

treaty of 183 

To-len-ti'no, battle of 228 

Ton-kin' 321 

Toul (tool), captured by Prussians . . 305 
Toulon (too-loN'), siege of . . . 96,107 
Tours (toor), temporary capital . 306, 308 

Traf-al-gar', battle of 173 

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 27 

of Amiens 158 

of Campo Formio 188,139 

of Cherasco 134 

of Luneville 157 

of Paris (1763) 31 

of Paris (1783) 45 

of Paris (1814) 221 

of Paris (1815) 239, 241 

of Pressburg 175 

of Tientsin 289 

of Tilsit 183 

of Versailles (1778) 44 

of Versailles (1871) 310 

of Vienna 193 

of Zurich 287 

Triumphal Arch of the Star . . . 186,187 
Trocadero (tro-ca-dfi'ro) .... 246, 321 
Trochu (tro-shii'), General . . . 304,308 

Tuileries (twel-re'), palace 39 

Bonaparte in 153, 226 

burned by Communists 315 

Louis XVI. in 66, 77-80 

Louis Philippe in 258 

raid on 77-80 

Tu'nis, protectorate over 821 

Tiir-goi!', minister 38, 40-12 

Tu'rin, capital of Sardinia 134 



Turkey, war with France . . 145, 146, 15S 

war with powers 251 

war with Eussia (Crimean War), 281-282 
Tus'ca-ny, annexed to France .... 188 

Tyr'ol, ceded by Austria 175 

revolt in 198 

Ulm (oolm), capture of 173 

United States, and French in Mexico . 291 

Valmy (val-me'), battle of 84 

Ya-rennes', flight to 71-73 

Vendee (viiiN-dil'), insurrection . 98, 108, 139 

Napoleon in 154 

supports Louis XVIII 229 

Vendome (vJiN-dom') Column . . 177, 313 

Venice, and Austria 138, 175 

and Sardinia 287-288, 292 

Vergennes (ver-zhen'), minister ... 43 

Ver-nei!', artist 46, 273 

Versailles (ver-sii'y'), palace of . ... 16 

deserted in 1789 66 

mob at 63-65 

National Assembly of 1871 at . 312-314 

opened to the public 263 

peace of (1871) 310 

treaty of (1778) 44 

Veto 73 

Vic'tor Em-man 'u-el, of Sardinia . 287,292 
Victoria, visits to France . . 268, 284, 285 
Vi-en'na, captured by Napoleon . 173,193 

Congress of 221, 237 

treaty of 193 

Vllleneuve (vel-nev'), Admiral .... 173 

Vol-taw^', author 31, 78 

Von Hatzfeld (fon htits'felt) . . . . .180 
Von Moltke (ion molt'ke) . . . 296, 300 

Wagram (va'gram), battle of .... 193 
War of the Austrian Succession . . 25-27 

War' saw, duchy of 183 

Wa-ter-loo', battle of ...... 230-233 

Wattignies (va-ten-ye'), battle of . . . 104 
Weissenburg (vis'en-boorK), battle of . 297 

WeUe§,']ey 190 

Wel'ling-ton, Duke of . . 190, 210, 229-231 
West-pha'li-a, kingdom of . . . 183, 211 

White Terror 117, 241 

Whites 98 

Wieland (ve'lant), and Napoleon . . .189 

Wiertz (verts), painting by 288 

William of Prussia .... 295,300,308 
World's fairs ... 298,821,823,327-329 
Worth (vert), battle of 297 

Zouaves (zoo-av') 269 

ZwT'der Zee, fleet captured in .... 119 
Zu'rich (zoo'rik), treaty of 28T 



HISTORICAL READERS 

By H. A. GUERBER 



Story of the Thirteen Colonies ^0-65 

Story of the Great Republic 65 

Story of the English 65 

Story of the Chosen People ........ .60 

Story of the Greeks 60 

Story of the Romans 60 



A LTHOUGH these popular books are intended primarily 
XV for supplementary reading, they will be found quite as 
valuable in adding hfe and interest to the formal study 
of history. Beginning with the fifth school year, they can be 
used with profit in any of the upper grammar grades. 
•[y In these volumes the history of some of the world's peoples 
has taken the form of stories in which the principal events are 
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^ No pains has been spared to interest boys and girls, to 
impart useful information, and to provide valuable lessons of 
patriotism, truthfulness, courage, patience, honesty, and in- 
dustry, which will make them good men and women. Many 
incidents and anecdotes, not included in larger works, are 
interspersed among the stories, because they are so frequently 
used in art and literature that familiarity with them is in- 
dispensable. The illustrations are unusually good. 
^1 The author's Myths of Greece and Rome, Myths of 
Northern Lands, and Legends of the Middle Ages, each, 
price ^1.50, present a fascinating account of those wonderful 
legends and tales of mythology which should be known to 
everyone. Seventh and eighth year pupils will delight in them. 



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